2017考博英语阅读模拟试题及答案 | 考博英语阅读

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40楼发表于: 2016-08-05

Between the eighth and eleventh centuries A. D., the Byzantine Empire staged an almost unparalleled economic and cultural revival, a recovery that is all the more striking because it followed a long period of severe internal decline. By the early eighth century, the empire had lost roughly two-thirds of the territory it had possessed in the year 600, and its remaining area was being raided by Arabs and Bulgarians, who at times threatened to take Constantinople and extinguished the empire altogether. The wealth of the state and its subjects was greatly diminished, and artistic and literary production had virtually ceased. By the early eleventh century, however, the empire had regained almost half of its lost possessions, its new frontiers were secure, and its influence extended far beyond its borders. The economy had recovered, the treasury was full, and art and scholarship had advanced.

　　To consider the Byzantine military, cultural, and economic advances as differentiated aspects of a single phenomenon is reasonable. After all, these three forms of progress have gone together in a number of states and civilizations. Rome under Augustus and fifth-century Athens provide the most obvious examples in antiquity. Moreover, an examination of the apparent sequential connections among military, economic, and cultural forms of progress might help explain the dynamics of historical change.

　　The common explanation of these apparent connections in the case of Byzantium would run like this: when the empire had turned back enemy raids on its own territory and had begun to raid and conquer enemy territory, Byzantine resources naturally expanded and more money became available to patronize art and literature. Therefore, Byzantine military achievements led to economic advances, which in turn led to cultural revival.

　　No doubt this hypothetical pattern did apply at times during the course of the recovery. Yet it is not clear that military advances invariably came first. Economic advances second, and intellectual advances third. In the 860’s the Byzantine Empire began to recover from Arab incursions so that by 872 the military balance with the Abbasid Caliphate had been permanently altered in the empire’s favor. The beginning of the empire’s economic revival, however, can be placed between 810 and 830. Finally, the Byzantine revival of learning appears to have begun even earlier. A number of notable scholars and writers appeared by 788 and, by the last decade of the eighth century, a cultural revival was in full bloom, a revival that lasted until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Thus the commonly expected order of military revival followed by economic and then by cultural recovery was reversed in Byzantium. In fact, the revival of Byzantine learning may itself have influenced the subsequent economic and military expansion.

　　1. Which of the following best states the central idea of the text?

　　[A] The Byzantine Empire was a unique case in which the usual order of military and economic revival preceding cultural revival was reversed.

　　[B] The economic, cultural, and military revival in the Byzantine Empire between the eighth and eleventh centuries was similar in its order to the sequence of revival in Augustan Rome and fifth-century Athens.

　　[C] After 810 Byzantine economic recovery spurred a military and, later, cultural expansion that lasted until 1453.

　　[D] The revival of the Byzantine Empire between the eighth and eleventh centuries shows cultural rebirth preceding economic and military revival, the reverse of the generally accepted sequence of progress.

　　2. It can be inferred from the text that the Byzantine Empire sustained significant territorial losses

　　[A] in 600.

　　[B] during the seventh century.

　　[C] a century after the cultural achievements of the Byzantine Empire had been lost.

　　[D] soon after the revival of Byzantine learning.

　　3. In the third paragraph, the author most probably provides an explanation of the apparent connections among economic, military, and cultural development in order to

　　[A] suggest that the process of revival in Byzantium accords with this model.

　　[B] set up an order of events that is then shown to be not generally applicable to the case of Byzantium.

　　[C] cast aspersions on traditional historical scholarship about Byzantium.

　　[D] suggest that Byzantium represents a case for which no historical precedent exists.

　　4. Which of the following does the author mention as crucial evidence concerning the manner in which the Byzantine revival began?

　　[A] The Byzantine military revival of the 860’s led to economic and cultural advances.

　　[B] The Byzantine cultural revival lasted until 1453.

　　[C] The Byzantine economic recovery began in the 900’s.

　　[D] The revival of Byzantine learning began toward the end of the eighth century.

　　5. According to the author, “The common explanation” (line 1, paragraph 3) of connections between economic, military, and cultural development is

　　[A] revolutionary and too new to have been applied to the history of the Byzantine Empire.

　　[B] reasonable, but an antiquated theory of the nature of progress.

　　[C] not applicable to the Byzantine revival as a whole, but does perhaps accurately describe limited periods during the revival.

　　[D] equally applicable to the Byzantine case as a whole and to the history of military, economic, and cultural advances in ancient Greece and Rome.

　　[答案与考点解析]

　　1. 【答案】D

　　【考点解析】这是一道中心主旨题。本文的中心主旨句在尾段的倒数第二句。如果考生能够识别出本文的中心主旨句，就会迅速地推导出本题的正确答案D。考生在解题时应首先寻找出全文的中心主旨句。

　　2. 【答案】B

　　【考点解析】这是一道细节推导题。从题干中的“territorial losses”可迅速确定本题答案信息的来源在第一段的第二句。通过仔细阅读本句的内容并且进行深入的推导就可得出本题的正确选项B。考生在解题时应该善于依据原文的内容进行深入地推导。

　　3. 【答案】B

　　【考点解析】本题是一道段落之间的关系题型。旨在考察学生的语言基本功，尤其是考察学生对段落之间相互关系理解和掌握的能力，这是一道比较难的题。本文第三段主要向我们介绍一种“common explanation”(通常的解释)。根据一般的行文规律，介绍“common”(通常的)是为了文章接下来阐述“不通常的”内容做一个铺垫，也是为了进行鲜明的对照和对比。这是考生在解答阅读题时需要掌握的一个规律。如果考生懂得这个规律并且把第三段和第四联系起来加以阅读和理解就不难得出本文的正确选项B。考生在解题时一定要牢记平时所积累的解题技巧和方法，尤其是要注意一些规律性的解题技巧和方法。

　　4. 【答案】D

　　【考点解析】这是一道审题定位题。根据题干中的“concerning the manner in which the Byzantine revival began”可将本题的答案信息迅速确定在本文的尾段。本题具体的答案信息在尾段的倒数第三句。因为尾段的倒数第二句是全文的中心主旨句，所以支持全文中心主旨句的最主要证据本应在该句之前。由于本题的题干涉及“Byzantine revival began”，故本题的答案应该是强调“拜占庭帝国文化复兴开始时间”的选项D。考生在解题时一定要对段落的行文发展和结构有所把握，这样才能迅速地审题定位。

　　5. 【答案】C

　　【考点解析】这是一道段落间关系与指代词题型。题干中的“common explanation”将我们带到了本文的第三段。但是本文提到“common explanation”的目的是要讲这种“common explanation”不能完全应用到拜占庭帝国的复兴。第四段的前三句是作者对这种“common explanation”的具体态度和观点。尾段首句中的指代词“this”和“at times”对我们推导本题的正确选项C起了重要的作用。考生在解题时一定要牢记原文作者的写作意图，要十分重视段落之间的相互关系。

　　[参考译文]

　　在8—11世纪之间，拜占庭帝国出现了一次无与伦比的经济和文化复兴，这次复兴之所以引人注目是因为它出现在一次严重的内部衰落之后。8世纪时，帝国失去了它600年时所拥有领土的大约2/3。仅存的部分也受到阿拉伯人和保加利亚人的侵袭，这些国家经常威胁说要攻占首都君士坦丁堡，把拜占庭彻底消灭掉。帝国的财富和臣民大幅减少，文学艺术也实际上陷于停顿。不过，到了11世纪初期，帝国重新收回了沦陷领土的几乎一半，新的边界是安定的，其影响远及疆土之外。经济也恢复了，国库充实，文学艺术也向前发展。

　　把拜占庭军事、文艺以及经济上的复兴理解为同一现象的不同表现是合理的。毕竟，这三者在相当多的同家中是一同出现的。奥古斯都统治下的罗马和公元前五世纪的雅典就是古代社会最好的例证。而且，对三者之间次第出现的联系做一番考察也有助于解释历史变化的原因。

　　通常，对于拜占庭帝国中三者复兴的联系会这样解释：当帝国已击退敌人的进攻并反攻到敌国疆土之时，拜占庭的财富自然就会增长，从而有更多的金钱可用来投资于文化艺术事业。因此，帝国军事成就促进经济昌盛，后者又引起了文化繁荣。

　　毫无疑问，这种假设能够解释复兴中的一些现象。但是我们不能明确地认为军事成就一定最先出现，经济其次，文化最后。(事实上)860年左右拜占庭帝国开始收复阿拉伯人占领的失地，直到872年，和哈里发阿拉伯国家的军事对比才有利于帝国。而经济的复兴在810—830年间就已开始。文化的复兴更早，早在788年，一批有名的学者、作家就出现了，8世纪最后十年，文化复兴已达极盛，并一直延续到1453年君士坦丁堡的陷落。因此，通常所认为的军事、经济、文化复兴三者次第出现的顺序在拜占庭是完全颠倒的。实际上，拜占庭文化的复兴可能反而影响了后来的经济、军事进步。

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41楼发表于: 2016-08-08

只看该作者 ┊ 小中大

Islamic terrorism may be a distant threat for Shearer Lumber Products, a timber company based in Idaho. But eco-terrorism is a very real one. In November, the Earth Liberation Front (ELF), an underground organization, gave warning that it had“spiked”trees in the Nez Perce national forest to protest against logging. Spiking involves hiding metal bars in tree trunks, thereby potentially crippling chain saws and hurting people. More such attacks are expected. How do they fit into America’s war on terrorism?

　　The nation’s forests have seen a sharp increase in violent incidents—equipment vandalized, people intimidated—over the past ten years. Shearer now carefully inspects every tree before cutting and has been using metal detectors to check every trunk being processed. Yet Ihor Mereszczak, of the Nez Perce Forest Service, says it has been hard to get the FBI’s attention, and investigations have got nowhere.

　　The ELF is only one thread in a web of underground radical environmentalists. Its aim is to inflict as much financial pain as possible on organizations or people who, by its lights, are exploiting the environment. The ELF, though made up of anonymous cells, nonetheless operates a website offering tips on how to cause fires with electric timers. Until recently, it also had a public spokesman.

　　Together with the Animal Liberation Front (ALF), which operates along the same lines, the ELF is estimated to be responsible for over $45m-worth of damage in North America over the past few years. In 1998, it caused fires that did $12m-worth of damage in Vail, Colorado, to make the point that the ski resort’s expansion was threatening places where lynxes live. Earlier this year, the ELF burned down the offices of a lumber company in Oregon. Since September 11th, the ALF and ELF have claimed responsibility for starting a fire at a primate research center in New Mexico, releasing mink from an Iowa fur farm, and firebombing a federal corral for wild horses in California.

　　Are they terrorists? The two groups reject the label, claiming to take all precautions against harming “animals, whether humans or not”. But earlier this year Louis Freeh, the FBI’s boss, listed both organizations among the most active domestic terrorist groups. Scott McInnis, the Republican congressman whose district includes Vail, argues it is only a matter of time before somebody gets hurt, and he now expects the FBI to put in more resources.

　　The House subcommittee on forests, which Mr McInnis heads, will hold a hearing on eco-terrorism in February. But he has annoyed some mainstream green groups by asking them to denounce the ELF’s and ALF’s methods. Greenpeace, for instance, says that its disapproval is self-evident, and resents being asked to express it. Mr. McInnis still wants their answer by December 1st, but the war on eco-terrorism is off to a rocky start.

　　1. What did the ELF do to Shearer Lumber Products?

　　[A] Hurt its employees. [B] Crippled its equipments. [C] Hid metals in its trees. [D] Protested against its spiking.

　　2. We can infer from the passage that_____.

　　[A] Shearer has experienced many violent incidents [B] new tools have been used to investigate terrorists

　　[C] FBI has been active in the war on eco-terrorism [D] ELF openly declares its beliefs and ends

　　3. According to ELF, all of the following are environmentally harmful except_____.

　　[A] causing fire in the houses [B] expanding ski resort [C] doing research on animals [D] invading into animal habitats

　　4. It is true of radical environmentalists that they_____.

　　[A] aim at causing damage to companies [B] resort to violence to achieve their purpose

　　[C] will do no harm to real people [D] are divided on opinions about terrorism

　　5.The best title for the text may be_____ .

　　[A] The Green Threat [B] Protecting Forests [C] Earth’s Liberation [D] Terrorism Defeated

　　答案：1.C 2.D 3.A 4.B 5.A

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42楼发表于: 2016-08-08

只看该作者 ┊ 小中大

BBC ‘s Casualty programme on Saturday evening gave viewers a vote as to which of two patients should benefit from a donation. But it failed to tell us that we would not need to make so many life-and-death decisions if we got to grip with the chronic organ shortage. Being pussyfooting around in its approach to dead bodies, the Government is giving a kicking to some of the most vulnerable in our society. One depressing consequence of this is that a significant number of those on the waiting list take off to foreign countries to purchase an organ from a living third-world donor, something that is forbidden in the United Kingdom. The poor have no option but to wait in vain.

　　The Human Tissue Authority’s position on the retention of body parts for medical research after a post-mortem examination is equally flawed. The new consent forms could have been drafted by some evil person seeking to stop the precious flow of human tissue into the pathological laboratory. The forms are so lengthy that doctors rarely have time to complete them and, even if they try, the wording is so graphic that relatives tend to leg it before signing. In consequence, the number of post mortems has fallen quickly.

　　The wider worry is that the moral shortsightedness evident in the Human Tissue Act seems to infect every facet of the contemporary debate on medical ethics. Take the timid approach to embryonic stem cell research. The United States, for example, refuses government funding to scientists who wish to carry out potentially ground-breaking research on the surplus embryos created by IVF treatment.

　　Senators profess to be worried that embryonic research fails to respect the dignity of “potential persons”. Rarely can such a vacuous concept have found its way into a debate claming to provide enlightenment. When is this “potential” supposed to kick in? In case you were wondering, these supposedly precious embryos are at the same stage of development as those that are routinely terminated by the Pill without anyone crying. Thankfully, the British Government has refused the position of the United States and operates one of the most liberal regimes in Europe, in which licences have been awarded to researchers to create embryos for medical research. It is possible that, in years to come, scientists will be able to grow organs in the lab and find cures for a range of debilitating diseases.

　　The fundamental problem with our approach to ethics is our inability to separate emotion from policy. The only factor that should enter our moral and legal deliberations is that of welfare, a concept that is meaningless when applied to entities that lack self-consciousness. Never forget that the research that we are so reluctant to conduct upon embryos and dead bodies is routinely carried out on living, pain-sensitive animals.

　　1. What has caused the chronic organ shortage?

　　[A] a decrease in donation rates. [B] inefficient governmental policy.

　　[C] illegal trade in human organs. [D] news media’s indifference.

　　2. The expression “pussyfooting around” (Line 3, Paragraph 1) might mean______.

　　[A] unfair [B] hesitant [C] secret [D] strict

　　3. The moral shortsightedness is revealed in the fact that _____.

　　[A] the government has stopped the experiment on human tissue

　　[B] the donation consent forms are difficult to understand

　　[C] the Human Tissues Act is an obstacle to important medical research

　　[D] embryonic research shows disregard for human life

　　4. To which of the following is the author most likely to agree?

　　[A] the rich and the poor are equal in the face of death. [B] more scientists are needed for the medical advancement.

　　[C] there is a double standard in medical ethics. [D] the dead deserve the same attention as the living.

　　5. The author is most critical of_____.

　　[A] the media [B] doctors [C] U. S. Legislators [D] the British government

　　答案:1.B 2.B 3.C 4.C 5.C

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43楼发表于: 2016-08-08

只看该作者 ┊ 小中大

　In the late 1980s, Akio Morita, the co-founder of Sony Corp. , embarked on the most costly shopping expedition of his long career. A visionary who believed that Sony’s future lay in the convergence of hardware and “content” such as music and film, Morita eventually set his sights on Columbia Pictures Entertainment, with its two studios and a vast library of movie titles and television series. In September, 1989, after months of on-again, off-again negotiations, Sony agreed to pay the inflated asking price of $3.2 billion and assume $1.6 billion in debt.

　　What was the rationale for such a decision? According to John Nathan’s Sony: The Private Life, it was motivated only by senior executives’ desire to please the company patriarch. Even Morita, then Sony’s chairman and CEO, believed that Columbia’s price tag, originally $35 per share, was exorbitant. In a closed-door meeting in August, 1989, details of which have never been fully revealed, he told his seven top aides, who made up the decision-making executive committee, that he was abandoning the idea of the acquisition.

　　That would have been the end of it had Morita not voiced regret over dinner that evening with the committee members. “It’s too bad,” he lamented, “I’ve always dreamed of owning a Hollywood studio.” The next day, the group reconvened and promptly decided that Sony would purchase Columbia after all. In the weeks that followed, Sony upped its bid from an initial $15 to $27 a share and, by late September, made a deal that was ridiculed by industry experts. In 1994, mismanagement forced Sony to write off $2.7 billion and assume a loss of $510 million for its Hollywood experiment.

　　Sony: The Private Life is filled with such insiders’ tales, making it the most vivid and detailed account in English of the personalities who built the $50 billion-plus consumer-electronics giant. Nathan, a professor of Japanese cultural studies at the University of California, got access to dozens of executives who had contributed to or witnessed Sony’s development since its 1946 founding in war-devastated Tokyo. Nathan offers, however, only limited analysis of Sony, the corporation. And he tends to go over well-trodden ground: how Sony established itself in the U.S. and how it developed famous products or devices. Much of this has appeared before in articles and, to a lesser extent, in books.

　　This is not to say that Nathan’s book has no point of view. The company’s underlying problem, as illustrated in the Columbia case, is that the environment in which the Sony Corporation has historically conducted its affairs is less public than personal, less rational than sentimental. In conclusion, Nathan says that, under the current leadership of President Nobuyuki Idei, Sony is emerging as a rational company. Moreover, Idei and his practical-minded managers are intent on reinventing Sony as an Internet company. From now on, says Nathan, “personal relationships are not likely again to figure decisively.” But how will this Sony fare? Nathan admits that a dazzling future is far from guaranteed.

　　1. Which of the following is true of Sony’s acquisition of Columbia Pictures?

　　[A] It was motivated by Morita’s desire to project an image of success.

　　[B] Sony’s top executives were quite convinced of its benefits for the company.

　　[C] Entertainment industry insiders believed it was the failure of Hollywood.

　　[D] It was the expensive expansion from electronics into entertainment.

　　2. The word “patriarch” (line 2, paragraph 2) most probably means_____.

　　[A] founder [B] monarch [C] elder [D] forerunner

　　3. It can be inferred from the last two paragraphs that_____.

　　[A] Sony: The Private Life is the biography of Akio Morita

　　[B] Sony’s Japanese leaders have been too practical-minded

　　[C] this management problem of Sony cannot be rectified overnight

　　[D] Nathan did not write about how Sony established itself as the electronics giant

　　4. Nathan’s attitude towards Morita seems to be of_____.

　　[A] strong distaste [B] implicit criticism [C] enthusiastic support [D] reserved consent

　　5. The best title for the passage may be_____.

　　[A] Sony’s Shopping Expedition　　 [B] Sony: the Private Life

　　[C] Who Drove Sony to Ground　　 [D] Sony: Management by Impulse

　　答案:1.D 2.A 3.C 4.B 5.D

词汇解析

　　(1)embark (v.) 上船，装船;~ on/upon sth.从事，着手，开始(新的或艰难的事情)

　　(2)expedition(n.)远征，探险;探险队;发出，派遣

　　(3)visionary(n.)空想家，梦想者，好幻想的人　vision(n.)幻想，幻影

　　(4)convergence(n.)集中，收敛converge(v.)聚合，集中于一点

　　(5)library(n.)系列丛书(或磁带等)，文库，如a ~ of children’s classics儿童文学名著系列丛书

　　(6)on-again, off-again一上一下，遭遇到种种波折

　　(7)asking price卖主的开叫价，卖出价

　　(8)rationale(n)(解释某个特别决定、行动、信仰的)基本原理，根本原因，理论依据

　　(9)exorbitant(a.)过度的，过高的，昂贵的

　　(10)lament(v.)悔恨，悲叹，哀悼

　　(11)reconvene(v.)重新集合，重新召集convene(v.)召集, 集合

　　(12)tread(v.)trod trodden踩，践踏;行走

　　(13)ground(n.)(兴趣、知识和思想的)范围、领域，如We have to go over the same~(我们得讨论同样的话题)。

　　(14)fare(n.)费用，旅客，食物(v.)过日子，遭遇，受招待How did you~in London?(你在伦敦过得怎样?)

　　全文翻译

　　在20世纪80年代后期，索尼公司的联合创始人盛田昭夫开始了他长期事业生涯中最昂贵的购物旅行。梦想家盛田昭夫相信索尼公司的未来在于硬件和音乐、电影这样的“内容”相结合，于是最终将目光投向哥伦比亚电影公司及其两个工作室和大量电影字母和电视剧集的文库。1989年9月，经过几个月几经波折的谈判，索尼公司同意支付飞涨的卖出价32亿美元从而承担16亿美元的债务。

　　这个决定的理论依据是什么?根据约翰内森所著《索尼公司的私人生活》，这个决定是出于高级行政人员要取悦公司创始人的愿望。甚至那时担任索尼公司主席和首席执行管的盛田昭夫也认为哥伦比亚的标价(开始是35美元一股)太昂贵。在1989年8月召开的一次从未完全公开的闭门会议中，他告诉组成具有决策权的执行委员会的七位高级助手，他将放弃收购的想法。

　　那天晚上用餐时如果盛田昭夫没有向委员会成员表示遗憾的话这件事情本应就这么结束了。他哀叹，“太糟了，我一直想拥有一个好莱坞工作室”。第二天，这个团队重新召开会议并仓促决定索尼公司将最终购买哥伦比亚。在接下来的几周内，索尼公司将其标价从开始的15美元一股上升到27美元。到了九月末，成交了一笔为业界专家嘲笑的交易。1994年，管理不善迫使索尼公司为它的好莱坞实验注销掉27亿美元资产和5.1亿美元的损失。

　　《索尼公司的私人生活》充满了这样的内幕故事，因此成为对建立价值500亿美元的消费者电子产品巨头的名人们最生动详细的描述。内森是加利福尼亚大学日本文化研究的教授，接触到很多作过贡献或目睹索尼公司自1946年在受战争破坏的东京建立以来的发展的行政人员。然而，内森只提供了对索尼公司的有限的分析，他总是重复老掉牙的话题：索尼公司如何在美国建立起来的，如何发展著名的产品和设备。这些内容很多以前在文章中出现，但较少出现在书中。

　　这并不是说内森的书没有观点。正如哥伦比亚事件所说明的，公司的潜在问题是“索尼公司历史事件发生的环境较个人化而非公开化，较感性而非理性”。总之，内森说，在现任主席出井伸之的领导下，索尼公司正成为一个理性的公司。而且，出井伸之和他追求实际的经理们专心把索尼公司重新改造为一家因特网公司。内森说，“从现在开始，个人关系不可能再起决定作用”。但是这个索尼公司将经营得如何?内森承认，美好的未来远不能得到保证。

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44楼发表于: 2016-08-10

只看该作者 ┊ 小中大

　Not long after the telephone was invented, I assume, a call was placed. The caller was a parent saying, “Your child is bullying my child, and I want it stopped!” the bully’s parent replied, “You must have the wrong number. My child is a little angel.”

　　A trillion phone calls later, the conversation is the same. When children are teased or tyrannized, the parental impulse is to grab the phone and rant. But these days, as studies in the U.S.show bullying on the rise and parental supervision on the decline, researchers who study bullying say that calling moms and dads is more futile than ever. Such calls often lead to playground recriminations and don’t really teach our kids any lessons about how to navigate the world and resolve conflicts.

　　When you call parents, you want them to “extract the cruelty” from their bullying children, says Laura Kavesh, a child psychologist in Evanston, Illinois. “But many parents are blown away by the idea of their child being cruel. They won’t believe it.” In a recent police-department survey in Oak Harbor, Washington, 89% of local high school students said they had engaged in bullying behavior. Yet only 18% of parents thought their children would act as bullies.

　　In a new U.S.PTA survey, 5% of parents support contacting other parents to deal with bullying. But many educators warn that those conversations can be misinterpreted, causing tempers to flare. Instead, they say, parents should get objective outsiders, like principals, to mediate.

　　Meanwhile, if you get a call from a parent who is angry about your child’s bullying, listen without getting defensive. That’s what Laura McHugh of Castro Valley, California, did when a caller told her that her then 13-year-old son had spit in another boy’s food. Her son had confessed, but the victim’s mom “wanted to make sure my son hadn’t given her son a nasty disease,” says McHugh, who apologized and promised to get her son tested for AIDS and other diseases. She knew the chance of contracting any disease this way was remote, but her promise calmed the mother and showed McHugh’s son that his bad behaviour was being taken seriously. McHugh, founder of Parents Coach Kids, a group that teaches parenting skills, sent the mom the test results. All were negative.

　　Remember: once you make a call, you might not like what you hear. If you have an itchy dialing finger, resist temptation. Put it in your pocket.

　　1.The word “bullying” probably means _____.

　　[A] frightening and hurting [B] teasing [C] behaving like a tyrant [D] laughing at

　　2. Calling to a bully’s parent _____.

　　[A] has long existed but changed its content [B] is often done with careful thinking

　　[C] often leads to blaming and misunderstanding [D] is used to warn the child not to do it again

　　3. According to the surveys in the U. S., _____.

　　[A] bullying among adults is also rising [B] parents are not supervising their children well

　　[C] parents seldom believe bullies [D] most parents resort to calling to deal with bullying

　　4. When bullying occurs, parents should _____.

　　[A] help the bulling child get rid of cruelty [B] resort to the mediator

　　[C] avoid getting too protective [D] resist the temptation of calling

　　5.Laura McHugh promised to get the bullied boy tested for diseases because _____.

　　[A] her son confessed to being wrong [B] she was afraid to annoy the boy’s parent

　　[C] he was likely to be affected by these diseases [D] she wanted to teach her own son a lesson

　　答案:1.A 2.C 3.B 4.B 5.D

　　词汇解析

　　(1)bully(n.)仗势欺人者，横行霸道者;(v.)恐吓，伤害，胁迫

　　(2)tease(v./n.)取笑，戏弄，揶揄;招惹，逗弄(动物);(n.)爱戏弄人的人，取笑者

　　(3)tyrannize(v.)对……施行暴政;专横地对待;tyranny(n.)暴虐，专横，苛政;暴君统治;tyrant(n.)暴君

　　(4)impulse(n.)冲动，一时的念头;推动力，刺激

　　(5)rant(n./v.)怒吼，咆哮，大声抱怨

　　(6)navigate(v.)导航，确定位置和方向;航行，航海，横渡;找到正确方法(对付困难复杂的情况)

　　(7)blow away意思是To affect intensely; overwhelm(强烈影响，征服)，如：That concert blew me away(音乐会震撼了我)。

　　(8)itchy(a.)使人发痒的;itch(n./v.)发痒，渴望

　　全文翻译

　　我认为，电话发明后不久，就有人就打这样的电话。打电话的是一位家长，他(她)说：“你的孩子在欺负我的孩子，我希望这样的事情不要再发生!”而这位仗势欺人的孩子的家长却回答到：“你一定拨错号码了，我的孩子是个小天使。”

　　在以后的岁月中，这样的电话不计其数，但电话内容却没有改变。当孩子遭到取笑或被专横地对待时，冲动的父母抓起电话，大声抱怨。但是最近，当美国的研究表明以强凌弱现象在增多而父母的管教在减少时，以强凌弱现象的研究者们说给父母打电话毫无用处。这样的电话常常只导致责备，并不能真正教育孩子如何在世界上生存和解决冲突。

　　伊利诺斯州伊文斯顿市区的儿童心理学家劳拉·卡维许说，“当你打电话给仗势欺人的孩子的父母时，是想让对方改掉他们孩子的残忍行为。但是许多父母对自己孩子有这样的残忍行为感到非常震惊，他们不愿意不相信”。最近警察部门在华盛顿橡木港口进行的调查显示，当地89%的高中生承认有过仗势欺人的行为。但只有18%的家长认为他们的孩子会成为仗势欺人者。

　　在美国家长——教师联合会新的调查中，5%的家长支持和其他家长联系来解决以强凌弱问题。但是很多专家警告说这样的对话可能会被误解，使对方勃然大怒。相反，他们认为父母应该找较客观的旁观者如学校校长等来进行调解。

　　同时，如果接到了一位对你的孩子仗势欺人的行为感到愤怒的家长的电话，你应该倾听，不要把自己保护起来。当加里福尼亚卡斯楚谷市的劳拉·麦休接到电话，被告知她13岁的儿子朝另外一个孩子的食物中吐吐沫时，她就这样做了。她儿子已经承认了。麦休说，“但受害者的母亲想确保我儿子没有传染给她儿子什么严重的疾病”。她道歉并并许诺让这个男孩做艾滋和其他严重疾病的测试。她知道通过那种方式传染疾病的几率非常小，但她的许诺使对方母亲平静了下来，并且也让自己的儿子知道父母是非常严肃地对待他的恶劣行为。麦休是教授父母技能的“父母教导孩子”组织的创始人。她将测试结果送给那位母亲，所有项目都显示阴性。

　　记住：一旦打电话，你可能会听到不想听的话。如果你手指发痒，忍住。把手放在口袋里。

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45楼发表于: 2016-08-10

只看该作者 ┊ 小中大

One of the silliest things in our recent history was the use of “Victorian” as a term of contempt or abuse. It had been made fashionable by Lytton Strachey with his clever, superficial and ultimately empty book Eminent Victorians, in which he damned with faint praise such Victorian heroes as General Gordon and Florence Nightingale. Strachey’s demolition job was clever because it ridiculed the Victorians for exactly those qualities on which they prided themselves—their high mindedness, their marked moral intensity, their desire to improve the human condition and their confidence that they had done so.

　　Yet one saw, even before the 100th anniversary of the death of Queen Victoria this year, that there were signs these sneering attitudes were beginning to change. Programmes on radio and television about Victoria and the age that was named after her managed to humble themselves only about half the time. People were beginning to realize that there was something heroic about that epoch and, perhaps, to fear that the Victorian age was the last age of greatness for this country.

　　Now a new book, What The Victorians Did For Us, aims further to redress the balance and remind us that, in most essentials, our own age is really an extension of what the Victorians created. You can start with the list of Victorian inventions. They were great lovers of gadgets from the smallest domestic ones to new ways of propelling ships throughout the far-flung Empire. In medicine, anaesthesia (developed both here and in America) allowed surgeons much greater time in which to operate—and hence to work on the inner organs of the body—not to mention reducing the level of pain and fear of patients.

　　To the Victorians we also owe lawn tennis, a nationwide football association under the modern rules, powered funfair rides, and theatres offering mass entertainment. And, of course, the modern seaside is almost entirely a Victorian invention. There is, of course, a darker side to the Victorian period. Everyone knows about it mostly because the Victorians catalogued it themselves. Henry Mayhew’s wonderful set of volumes on the lives of the London poor, and official reports on prostitution, on the workhouses and on child labour—reports and their statistics that were used by Marx when he wrote Das Kapital—testify to the social conscience that was at the center of “Victorian values”.

　　But now, surely, we can appreciate the Victorian achievement for what it was—the creation of the modern world. And when we compare the age of Tennyson and Darwin, of John Henry Newman and Carlyle, with our own, the only sensible reaction is one of humility: “We are our father’s shadows cast at noon”.

　　1.According to the author, Lytton Strachey’s book Eminent Victorians _____.

　　[A] accurately described the qualities of the people of the age

　　[B] superficially praised the heroic deeds of the Victorians

　　[C] was highly critical of the contemporary people and institutions

　　[D] was guilty of spreading prejudices against the Victorians

　　2. The change in the attidues towards the Vcitorians is revealed in the fact that _____.

　　[A] the 100th anniversary of the death of Queen Victoria is celebrated

　　[B] the media publicizes events or people about the Victorian age

　　[C] people begin to highly praise Victorian heroes

　　[D] a new book regards Victorians as creators of the modern world

　　3. What is the meaning of the word “gadgets” (Paragraph 4)?

　　[A] devices [B] tools [C] appliances [D] engines

　　4. According to the text, the Victorians invented _____.

　　[A] surgery [B] seaside holiday [C] funfair [D] mass entertainment

　　5. The author talks about the darker side of the Victorian period to _____.

　　[A] disclose the social injustices and evils

　　[B] give proof to Karl Marx’s Das Kapital

　　[C] manifest the Victorians’ good sense of right and wrong

　　[D] show the age’s strengths outweigh its weaknesses

　　答案:1.D 2.D 3.A 4.B 5.C

　　词汇解析

　　(1)damn sb./sth. with faint praise名褒实贬，用冷漠的赞扬贬低，如She damned Reynolds with faint praise, calling him one of the best imitators in the world.

　　(2)demolition(n.)破坏，毁坏

　　(3)sneer(n./v.)冷笑，讥笑，嘲笑

　　(4)epoch(n.)新纪元，时代，时期

　　(5)redress(v)纠正，矫正;重新穿衣，重新调整

　　(6)essential(a.)本质的，基本的;必不可少的;精华的(n.)基本必要的东西;本质，实质要素，要点

　　(7)far-flung(a.)蔓延的，广泛的，广泛传播的，辽阔的

　　(8)anaesthesia(n.)感觉缺乏，麻木，麻醉(法);esthe词根表示“感觉”，如esthetic感觉的

　　(9)catalogue(n.)目录;一连串(糟糕)事，如a ~ of disasters接二连三的灾难(v.)列入目录;记载，登记(某人某事的详情)

　　(10)testify(v.)(出庭)作证;证实，证明;~ to sth.作为某事的证明，说明，如The film testifies to the courage of ordinary people during the war(这部电影表明老百姓在战争时期的英勇行为)

　　(11)humility(n.)谦卑[恭，逊]，[pl. ]谦让的行为

　　全文翻译

　　我们近代历史上最愚蠢的事之一就是把“Victorian”作为鄙视和漫骂的名称。而使这一说法得以流传开来的是莱顿·斯传策斯那本言辞巧妙但肤浅空洞的《维多利亚时代的俊杰》，在这本书中他讽刺了如戈登将军和弗洛伦斯·南丁格尔这样的维多利亚时代的英雄。斯传策斯破坏性的工作是巧妙的，因为它嘲笑的正是维多利亚人引以自豪的品质：清高、特别的道德强度、想改善人类条件的愿望以及他们认为自己已经做到了的信心。

　　然而，即使是今年维多利亚女王逝世一百周年纪念日到来之前，人们已看到这种嘲笑的态度正在开始转变。广播和电视中只有半数有关维多利亚及以她的名字命名的时代的节目设法进行自我贬低。人们开始意识到那个时代有些英雄的意味，又或许是开始害怕维多利亚时代是这个国家最后一个伟大的时代。

　　现在的一本新书《维多利亚时代的人为我们作了什么?》旨在进一步恢复平衡并提醒我们：在大多数基本方面，我们自己的时代实际上是维多利亚时代创造的东西的延伸。可以从列举维多利亚时代的发明开始。他们对设备十分痴迷——小到家用设备，大到为远航整个帝国的船只提供动力的新途径。在医学方面，(在本国和美国都有发展的)麻醉法使外科大夫有更多的时间，从而可以对身体的内部器官进行手术，更不用说减少病人的疼痛和恐惧了。

　　也因为有了维多利亚人，我们才有了草地网球、在现代规则下的全国足球协会、露天游乐场的动力旋转木马和提供大众娱乐的剧院。当然，现代海边渡假几乎完全就是维多利亚时代的发明。不过，维多利亚时期也有阴暗的一面。大家之所以都知道这一点，主要是因为维多利亚人自己已经将它记录下来了。亨利·梅休描写伦敦贫苦人生活的精彩卷集，官方有关卖淫、济穷院和儿童劳工的报道(马克思写《资本论》时引用的这些方面的数据)都表明了社会良知是“维多利亚价值观”的核心内容。

　　但是如今，我们应该感激维多利亚创造现代世界所取得的成就。当我们拿丁尼生、达尔文、约翰·亨利·纽曼和卡莱尔的时代与我们自己的时代相比较时，唯一明智的反应就是谦卑：“我们只是父辈在正午投射的影子”。

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46楼发表于: 2016-08-10

只看该作者 ┊ 小中大

One great benefit of the Web is that it allows us to move information online that now resides in paper form. Several states in America are using the Web in a profound way. You can apply for various permits or submit applications for business licences. Some states are putting up listings of jobs—not just state government jobs, but all the jobs available in the state. I believe, over time, that all the information that governments print, and all those paper forms they now have, will be moved on to the Internet.

　　Electronic commerce notches up month-by-month too. It is difficult to measure, because a lot of electronic commerce involves existing buyers and sellers who are simply moving paperbased transactions to the Web. That is not new business. Microsoft, for example, purchases millions of dollars of PCs online instead of by paper. However, that is not a fundamental change; it has just improved the efficiency of an existing process. The biggest impact has occurred where electronic commerce matches buyers and sellers who would not previously have found each other. When you go to a book site and find an obscure book that you never would have found in a physical bookstore, that is a new type of commerce.

　　Today, about half of all PCs are still not connected to the Web. Getting communications costs down and making all the software simpler will bring in those people. And that, in turn, will move us closer to the critical mass that will make the Web lifestyle everyone’s lifestyle. One element that people underestimate is the degree to which the hardware and software will improve. Just take one aspect: screen technology. I do my e-mail on a 20-inch liquid crystal display (LCD) monitor. It is not available at a reasonable price yet, but in two years it will be. In ten years, a 20-inch LCD with much higher resolution will be commonplace. The boundary between a television set and a PC will be blurred because even the set-top box that you connect up to your cable or satellite will have a processor more powerful than what we have today in the most expensive PC. This will, in effect, make your television a computer.

　　Interaction with the Web also will improve, making it much easier for people to be involved. Today the keywords we use to search the Web often return to too many articles to sort through, many of them out of context. If you want to learn about the fastest computer chip available, you might end up getting responses instead about potato chips being delivered in fast trucks. In the future, we shall be either speaking or typing sentences into the computer. If you ask about the speed of chips, the result will be about computers, not potatoes. Speech recognition also means that you will be able to call in on a phone and ask if you have any new messages, or check on a flight, or check on the weather.

　　To predict that it will take over ten years for these changes to happen is probably pessimistic. We usually overestimate what we can do in two years and underestimate what we can do in ten. The Web will be as much a way of life as the car by 2008. Probably before.

　　1. Electronic commerce becomes a new type of commerce when_____.

　　[A] paperbased transactions are moved on to the Web [B] the efficiency of the existing process is improved by Internet

　　[C] new buyers and sellers find each other on the Internet [D] a book site offers the books several bookstores have altogether

　　2. The use of computer will be as common as the use of cars when_____.

　　[A] governments begin to move administration on-line [B] electronic commerce causes a fundamental change

　　[C] computer and communication become simpler and cheaper [D] the boundary between the computer and the TV disappears

　　3. What is the current problem with the Web according to the passage?

　　[A] Too much information. [B] Lack of response. [C] Ineffective interaction. [D] Slowness of speed.

　　4. The example of potato chips is used to illustrate_____.

　　[A] the defect of computers at the present stage of development [B] the similarity between a computer chip and a potato chip

　　[C] the richness of information available on the web [D] the irrelevant responses the web sometimes offers

　　5. The passage is mainly trying to show that_____.

　　[A] the web is becoming a way of conveying information [B] the web will bring about a new way of life

　　[C] electronic commerce develops with the Internet [D] interaction with the Web will become easier

　　答案：1.C 2.C 3.C 4.D 5.B

　　词汇解析

　　(1)notch(n.)等级，档次;(表面或边缘的)V形刻痕，圆形切口;(v.)(up)赢得，获得;刻V形痕，刻下切口

　　(2)measure(v.)测量，度量;估量，判定(重要性、价值或影响等)

　　(3)obscure(a.)无名的，鲜为人知的;费解的，难以理解的;(v.)使模糊，使晦涩，使费解

　　(4)physical(a.)身体的，肉体的，躯体的;物质的，现实的;根据自然规律的;物理学的;肉欲的;使用武力的

　　(5)bring in(sb.)让……参与;逮捕，带到警察局询问;(sth.)提出(新法案);吸引,引入

　　(6)resolution(n.)正式决定;(问题、纷争的)解决;决定;清晰度;分辨率

　　(7)commonplace(a.)平凡的，普通的，普遍的;(n.)常见的事;平常的事;老生常谈

　　(8)article(n.)文章，论文，报道;条款，项;物件，物品

　　全文翻译

　　网络的一个很大的好处是它允许我们把如今停留在纸上的信息转移到网上。美国几个州正在以一种意义深远的方式使用网络。人们能申请各种用于营业执照的申请表。一些州正在公布一系列工作，不仅包括州政府的工作，而且包括州内所有的工作。我认为，随着时间的推移，所有政府打印的信息以及所有他们现有的纸的形式，都会转移到网络上。

　　电子商务也越来越成功。但它很难估量，因为许多电子商务仅仅是现有的买家和卖家把以纸张为基础的交易移到网上进行。这不是一种新的贸易形式。比如，微软每年通过在线购买数百万美元的电脑，而不是通过纸张进行。然而，这不是根本的变化，只是提高了现有交易的效率。当电子商务把以前不可能找到对方的买方和卖方匹配起来时，网络的最大影响力才出现。当你去购书网站找到一本在有形的书店不能找到的晦涩难懂的书，那就是新形式的商务。

　　如今，几乎一半的个人电脑仍然没有与网络连接。通讯费用的降低以及所有软件的简易化可以使这些人和网络连接起来。而这又将使我们更接近让网络生活方式成为所有人的生活方式的临界点。人们低估了的一个因素是硬件和软件将得到改善的程度。比如，屏幕技术方面。现在我在20英寸的液晶显示器上发电子邮件。虽然它现在还不能以合理的价格购买，但是两年后将可以。十年后，更高清晰度的20英寸液晶显示器将成为普通的事物。电视和个人电脑之间的界限将变得模糊，因为甚至是连着有线或卫星的电视机上的盒子中都会有比如今最昂贵的个人电脑更强大的的处理器。实际上，你的电视将成为一台电脑。

　　与网络的交流也将得到改善，这使人们更容易参与其中。如今，搜索网络时输入的关键词总会搜出太多的选项让你选择，而其中很多项与你所找的内容无关。当你想知道现有的最快的计算机芯片时，却得到在快速通道上运送的薯片的信息。将来，我们可以对着电脑讲话或者往电脑中输入句子。如果问芯片的速度，结果将是电脑，而不是土豆。声音的识别也意味着你将能够打电话给电脑询问是否有新的信息，或者查询航班和天气。

　　预计这些变化要花上十多年时间才会发生可能太悲观了。我们经常高估两年内能做的事情，而低估十年之内能做的事情。到了2008年，或者在这之前，网络会像汽车一样成为生活的一种方式。

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47楼发表于: 2016-08-11

只看该作者 ┊ 小中大

The use of heat pumps has been held back largely by skepticism about advertisers’ claims that heat pumps can provide as many as two units of thermal energy for each unit of electrical energy used, thus apparently contradicting the principle of energy conservation.

　　Heat pumps circulate a fluid refrigerant that cycles alternatively from its liquid phase to its vapor phase in a closed loop. The refrigerant, starting as a low-temperature, low-pressure vapor, enters a compressor driven by an electric motor. The refrigerant leaves the compressor as a hot, dense vapor and flows through a heat exchanger called the condenser, which transfers heat from the refrigerant to a body of air. Now the refrigerant, as a high-pressure, cooled liquid, confronts a flow restriction which causes the pressure to drop. As the pressure falls, the refrigerant expands and partially vaporizes, becoming chilled. It then passes through a second heat exchanger, the evaporator, which transfers heat from the air to the refrigerant, reducing the temperature of this second body of air. Of the two heat exchangers, one is located inside, and the other one outside the house, so each is in contact with a different body of air: room air and outside air, respectively.

　　The flow direction of refrigerant through a heat pump is controlled by valves. When the refrigerant flow is reversed, the heat exchangers switch function. This flow-reversal capability allows heat pumps either to heat or cool room air.

　　Now, if under certain conditions a heat pump puts out more thermal energy than it consumes in electrical energy, has the law of energy conservation been challenged? No, not even remotely: the additional input of thermal energy into the circulating refrigerant via the evaporator accounts for the difference in the energy equation.

　　Unfortunately there is one real problem. The heating capacity of a heat pump decreases as the outdoor temperature falls. The drop in capacity is caused by the lessening amount of refrigerant mass moved through the compressor at one time. The heating capacity is proportional to this mass flow rate: the less the mass of refrigerant being compressed, the less the thermal load it can transfer through the heat-pump cycle. The volume flow rate of refrigerant vapor through the single-speed rotary compressor used in heat pumps is approximately constant. But cold refrigerant vapor entering a compressor is at lower pressure than warmer vapor. Therefore, the mass of cold refrigerant — and thus the thermal energy it carries — is less than if the refrigerant vapor were warmer before compression.

　　Here, then, lies a genuine drawback of heat pumps: in extremely cold climates — where the most heat is needed — heat pumps are least able to supply enough heat.

　　1. The primary purpose of the text is to

　　[A] explain the differences in the working of a heat pump when the outdoor temperature changes.

　　[B] contrast the heating and the cooling modes of heat pumps.

　　[C] describe heat pumps, their use, and factors affecting their use.

　　[D] advocate the more widespread use of heat pumps.

　　2. The author resolves the question of whether heat pumps run counter to the principle of energy conservation by

　　[A] carefully qualifying the meaning of that principle.

　　[B] pointing out a factual effort in the statement that gives rise to this question.

　　[C] supplying additional relevant facts.

　　[D] denying the relevance of that principle to heat pumps.

　　3. It can be inferred from the text that, in the course of a heating season, the heating capacity of a heat pump is greatest when

　　[A] heating is least essential.

　　[B] electricity rates are lowest.

　　[C] its compressor runs the fastest.

　　[D] outdoor temperatures hold steady.

　　4. If the author’s assessment of the use of heat pumps (lines 1-4) is correct, which of the following best expresses the lesson that advertisers should learn from this case?

　　[A] Do not make exaggerated claims about the products you are trying to promote.

　　[B] Focus your advertising campaign on vague analogies and veiled implications instead of on facts.

　　[C] Do not use facts in your advertising that will strain the prospective client’s ability to believe.

　　[D] Do not assume in your advertising that the prospective clients know even the most elementary scientific principles.

　　5. The text suggests that heat pumps would be used more widely if

　　[A] they could also be used as air conditioners.

　　[B] they could be moved around to supply heat where it is most needed.

　　[C] their heat output could be thermostatically controlled.

　　[D] people appreciated the role of the evaporator in the energy equation.

　　[答案与考点解析]

　　1. 【答案】C

　　【考点解析】这是一道中心主旨题。本文的第二、三、四段描述了“heat pumps”的相关物理原理，第一、五、六段谈到了影响“heat pumps”应用的原因。由此可见本题的正确选项应该是C。考生在解题时一定要对全文的整体结构有所认识，并将各段的主题句联系起来加以理解。

　　2. 【答案】C

　　【考点解析】这是一道段落间关系题。通过题干中的“the question of whether heat pumps run counter to the principle of energy conservation”可迅速确定本题的答案信息来源应该在第二段，因为第一段就是本题的题干。通过仔细阅读原文可发现本题的答案信息来源在第二、三、四段，在这三段中本文作者为解决相关问题给出了“relevant facts”(相关事实)。可见本题的正确选项应该是C。考生在解题时一定要注意段落之间的相互关系。

　　3. 【答案】A

　　【考点解析】这是一道审题定位与反推题。通过本题题干中的“heating season”可迅速将本题的答案信息来源确定在尾段，因为尾段中的“extremely cold climates”暗示出“heating season”。通过仔细阅读和理解尾段并且进行相应的推导就可得出本题的正确选项A。考生在解题时首先要具备审题定位的能力，另外在解题时不能仅仅停留于字面含义，要多动脑子进行合理的推导。

　　4. 【答案】C

　　【考点解析】这是一道归纳推导题。题干把本题所涉及的问题确定在第一段，而本文作者对于该问题的解释和说明确在第四段。通过对这两段的综合归纳推导，可得出本题的正确选项是C。由于作者在第四段的深刻解释帮助解决了人们心中的疑惑，但是这两段的深层含义暗示我们：人们在做广告时要避免使用超出消费者可信度的信息。考生在解题时要注意段落之间的联系，更要注意作者所要传递的深层含义。

　　5. 【答案】D

　　【考点解析】这是一道审题定位与段落间关系题。通过题干中的“heat pumps would be used more widely”可迅速确定本题的题干来自于首段，在首段中我们也可以得知阻碍“heat pumps”被大家广泛接受的原因是“contradicting the principle of energy conservation”。在本文的第四段作者对第一段中所涉及的问题给出了合理的解释，指出“heat pumps”并没有“contradicting the principle of energy conservation”。问题出在人们对于“evaporator”缺乏了解。综合这两段的内容我们可得知：如果人们对“evaporator”有所认识，他们对“heat pumps”就不会心存疑虑，同时他们就会接受“heat pumps”，从而“heat pumps”就会得到广泛的利用。可见本题的正确选项应该中D。考生在解题时一定要注意段落之间的联系，更要注意反推即逆向思维的应用。

　　[参考译文]

　　热泵使用受到阻碍，主要是人们怀疑广告上所宣称的，热泵能够提供两倍于其所消耗电能的热能，这显然与能量守恒定理相悖。

　　热泵循环使用的是液体制冷剂，这个循环使得制冷剂在一个封闭环路内从液体到气体交替变化。循环开始时，制冷剂以低温低压的蒸气，进入一个电机驱动的压缩机。出了压缩机后，制冷剂变为高温稠密的气体，流经一个被称为冷凝器的热交换器，这个冷凝器把制冷剂的热量传送到一个气团。制冷剂就变成了高压冷却的液态，然后经过一个节流器，节流器使其压力下降。压力下降时，制冷剂就会膨胀并且使部分液体气化，制冷剂变冷。然后经过第二个热交换器即蒸发器，蒸发器把热量从空气中传到制冷剂中，使得第二个气团温度降低。这两个热交换器，一个在室内工作，另外一个位于室外，所以每个热交换器接触各自不同的气团：室内空气和室外空气。

　　制冷剂在热泵内的流动方向受阀门控制。当制冷剂逆向流动时，两个交换器就交换它们的功能。这个逆向流动的能力使得热泵对室内空气加温或冷却。

　　现在，如果在某些条件下一个热泵输出的热能多于其消耗的电能，则能量守恒法则受到挑战了么?不，丝毫没有：通过蒸发器进入了制冷剂循环的额外热能，可以说明能量平衡上的差异。

　　不幸的是，这里有一个现实的问题。热泵的加热能力随着室外温度的下降而减少，其减少是由于在固定时间内流经压缩机的制冷剂数量上的减少而造成的。热容量和制冷剂质量流动速率成比例：被压缩的制冷剂越少，加载到热机循环中传输的热量越少。在使用单速旋转式压缩机的热泵中，制冷剂气体的体积流动速率近似一个常数。但进入压缩机的制冷剂气体，其冷却的气体压力比热气压力要小。因此，冷的制冷剂气体质量，也就是它携带的热能小于在压缩之前比较热的制冷剂气体的质量。

　　这样，那么热泵存在的真正障碍在于：在极端寒冷气候地区，那里最需要热量，热泵却最不能够提供充足的热量。

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48楼发表于: 2016-08-11

只看该作者 ┊ 小中大

Traditionally, the study of history has had fixed boundaries and focal points — periods, countries, dramatic events, and great leaders. It also has had clear and firm notions of scholarly procedure: how one inquires into a historical problem, how one presents and documents one’s findings, what constitutes admissible and adequate proof.

　　Anyone who has followed recent historical literature can testify to the revolution that is taking place in historical studies. The currently fashionable subjects come directly from the sociology catalog: childhood, work, leisure. The new subjects are accompanied by new methods. Where history once was primarily narrative, it is now entirely analytic. The old questions “What happened?” and “How did it happen?” have given way to the question “Why did it happen?” Prominent among the methods used to answer the question “Why” is psychoanalysis, and its use has given rise to psychohistory.

　　Psychohistory does not merely use psychological explanations in historical contexts. Historians have always used such explanations when they were appropriate and when there was sufficient evidence for them. But this pragmatic use of psychology is not what psychohistorians intend. They are committed, not just to psychology in general, but to Freudian psychoanalysis. This commitment precludes a commitment to history as historians have always understood it. Psychohistory derives its “facts” not from history, the detailed records of events and their consequences, but from psychoanalysis of the individuals who made history, and deduces its theories not from this or that instance in their lives, but from a view of human nature that transcends history. It denies the basic criterion of historical evidence: that evidence be publicly accessible to, and therefore assessable by, all historians. And it violates the basic tenet of historical method: that historians be alert to the negative instances that would refute their theses. Psychohistorians, convinced of the absolute rightness of their own theories, are also convinced that theirs is the “deepest” explanation of any event, that other explanations fall short of the truth.

　　Psychohistory is not content to violate the discipline of history (in the sense of the proper mode of studying and writing about the past); it also violates the past itself. It denies to the past an integrity and will of its own, in which people acted out of a variety of motives and in which events had a multiplicity of causes and effects. It imposes upon the past the same determinism that it imposes upon the present, thus robbing people and events of their individuality and of their complexity. Instead of respecting the particularity of the past, it assimilates all events, past and present, into a single deterministic schema that is presumed to be true at all times and in all circumstances.

　　1. Which of the following best states the main point of the text?

　　[A] The approach of psychohistorians to historical study is currently in vogue even though it lacks the rigor and verifiability of traditional historical method.

　　[B] Traditional historians can benefit from studying the techniques and findings of psychohistorians.

　　[C] Areas of sociological study such as childhood and work are of little interest to traditional historians.

　　[D] The psychological assessment of an individual’s behavior and attitudes is more informative than the details of his or her daily life.

　　2. The author mentions which of the following as a characteristic of the practice of psychohistorians?

　　[A] The lives of historical figures are presented in episodic rather than narrative form.

　　[B] Archives used by psychohistorians to gather material are not accessible to other scholars.

　　[C] Past and current events are all placed within the same deterministic diagram.

　　[D] Events in the adult life of a historical figure are seen to be more consequential than are those in the childhood of the figure.

　　3. The author of the text suggests that psychohistorians view history primarily as

　　[A] a report of events, causes, and effects that is generally accepted by historians but which is, for the most part, unverifiable.

　　[B] an episodic account that lacks cohesion because records of the role of childhood, work, and leisure in the lives of historical figures are rare.

　　[C] an uncharted sea of seemingly unexplainable events that have meaning only when examined as discrete units.

　　[D] a record the way in which a closed set of immutable psychological laws seems to have shaped events.

　　4. The author of the text puts the word “deepest” (line 14, paragraph 3) in quotation marks most probably in order to

　　[A] signal her reservations about the accuracy of psychohistorians’ claims for their work.

　　[B] draw attention to a contradiction in the psychohistorians’ method.

　　[C] emphasize the major difference between the traditional historians’ method and that of psychohistorians.

　　[D] disassociate her opinion of the psychohistorians’ claims from her opinion of their method.

　　5. In presenting her analysis, the author does all of the following EXCEPT.

　　[A] Make general statements without reference to specific examples.

　　[B] Describe some of the criteria employed by traditional historians.

　　[C] Question the adequacy of the psychohistorians’ interpretation of events.

　　[D] Point out inconsistencies in the psychohistorians’ application of their methods.

　　[答案与考点解析]

　　1. 【答案】A

　　【考点解析】这是一道中心主旨题。从第二段开始出现全文的主要谈论内容，第二段的最后一句出现了全文所谈论的中心“psychohistory”，在第二段中谈到了“psychohistory”的流行性，在第二段和第三段中作者谈到了“psychohistory”缺乏历史科学研究的“严密性和可考证性”。由此分析可见本题的正确选项应该是包含“psychohistory”和“history”概念的选项A。考生在解题时要善于首先捕捉全文的中心主旨句，并通过阅读和理解去把握原文所表达的思想。

　　2. 【答案】C

　　【考点解析】这是一道审题定位题。通过题干中的“psychohistorians”可将本题的答案信息确定在第三、四段，但是题干并没有明确指出本题准确的信息来源。但是题干中的“practice”(实践)一词暗示考生本题的答案信息可能在尾段，因为人们一般阐述问题的规律是：从理论谈到实践。如果不出万一本文的尾段应该谈到“psychohistorians”的实践问题。通过阅读尾段，尤其是尾段尾句，我们可得出本题的正确选项应该是C。这道题的难点在于审题定位。审题定位不是一个简单的问题，需要考生对文章的叙述结构和人类的表达习惯有所认识。

　　3. 【答案】D

　　【考点解析】这是一道审题定位题。通过题干中的“psychohistorians view history primarily as”可判断本题是要考生找出“psychohistorians”如何看待(view…as)历史(history)，即要考生找出“psychohistorians”对历史的看法和态度。根据行文和表达规律，这道题的答案信息应该在第三段，准确地说在第三段的第五句话，因为这句话包含“history”一词。通过阅读和理解第三段的第四、五、六句话，我们可以推导出本题的正确选项应该是突出“psychological”含义的选项D。考生在解题时一定要注意英语行文和表达的规则。

　　4. 【答案】A

　　【考点解析】这是一道标点符号题。本题题干已将本题的答案信息确定在第三段的倒数第二行。此处引号所表达的含义是“所谓最深刻的”，即实际上是“不深刻的”。故本题的正确选项应该是含有“reservations”(有保留)一词的选项A。考生在破解阅读理解题型时一定要注意标点符号的应用，以及它们所产生的相应的含义。

　　5. 【答案】D

　　【考点解析】本题是一道写作手法题型。这是一道比较难的题，旨在考察考生的语言基本功，尤其是写作手法和文章结构方面的知识。本题A、B、C中所涉及的内容可分别在第三段第六、七、八句、第一段第一、二句以及第三段的尾句找到。本文并没有谈到“psychohistorians”在应用自己方法方面的前后矛盾不一致性，故本题的正确选项应该是选项D。考生在解题时应注意原文中常用的写作手法。

　　[参考译文]

　　传统上，历史研究具有固定的界限和焦点——时期、国家、引人注目的事件，和伟大的领袖。在学术过程上的观念也非常清晰和坚定：研究者是如何探究历史问题的，他们是如何展示他们的发现并归纳成文档的，有什么令人信服的足够的证据。

　　凡是注意最近的历史文献的人都能证明在历史研究上正在发生一场革命。目前最流行的题材直接来源于社会学领域：儿童时代，工作，休闲。伴随着新的题材的是新的研究方法。过去的历史主要是叙述性的，现在则完全变成分析性的了。过去的问题是“发生了什么?”和“怎么发生的?”，现在它们则让位给了“为什么会发生?”。在用来回答“为什么”这一问题的方法中，最突出的是心理分析，而对这种方法的使用则导致了心理历史学的兴起。

　　心理历史学并不仅仅在历史环境下使用心理解释。过去，历史学家也总是在适当并有足够证据支持的时候使用这样的解释。但这种对心理学的实用主义的应用并不是心理历史学家所希望的。他们通常不只局限于心理学，而是要使用弗洛伊德的心理分析。这样，就同过去历史学家所理解的历史大相径庭了。心理历史学不是从历史，从事件的详细记录和它们的前因后果中来获取“事实”，而是对造成历史的个人进行心理分析，从中获取“事实”;不是从这些创造历史的人物一生的这个或那个实例中演绎出理论，而是从超越历史的人类本性的角度来推导理论。它否定关于历史证据的基本标准，即：这些证据应该是公众能够了解的，因此，也就是所有历史学家都能够了解的。它还违反了历史学方法的基本原则：历史学家要警惕能够驳倒他们的论题的反面事例。心理历史学家，则相信他们的理论绝对正确，而且确信他们的理论是对任何事件的“最深刻”的解释，而其它的解释都远离真实。

　　心理历史学家并不满足于破坏历史学的规范(在正确研究和书写过去的意义上);它还要破坏过去本身。它否定过去是一个整体并有自身的发展规律，人们在这个整体中出于各种不同的动机行事，事件的发生是由多种原因和影响共同造成的。它把决定当前情况的决定论强加给过去，这就剥夺了人和事件的独特性和复杂性。它不是尊重过去的特殊性，而是把过去和现在的所有事件都吸收到一个单一的决定论模式中，假设这个模式在任意时间和任意环境中都是正确的。

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49楼发表于: 2016-08-11

只看该作者 ┊ 小中大

Flatfish, such as the flounder, are among the few vertebrates that lack approximate bilateral symmetry (symmetry in which structures to the left and right of the body’smidline are mirror images). Most striking among the many asymmetries evident in an adult flatfish is eye placement: before maturity one eye migrates, so that in an adult flatfish both eyes are on the same side of the head. While in most species with asymmetries virtually all adults share the same asymmetry, members of the starry flounder species can be either left-eyed (both eyes on the left side of head) or right-eyed. In the waters between the United States and Japan, the starry flounder populations vary from about 50 percent left-eyed off the United States West Coast, through about 70 percent left-eyed halfway between the United States and Japan, to nearly 100 percent left-eyed off the Japanese coast.

　　Biologists call this kind of gradual variation over a certain geographic range a “cline” and interpret clines as strong indications that the variation is adaptive, a response to environmental differences. For the starry flounder this interpretation implies that a geometric difference (between fish that are mirror images of one another) is adaptive, that left-eyedness in the Japanese starry flounder has been selected for, which provokes a perplexing question: what is the selective advantage in having both eyes on one side rather than on the other?

　　The ease with which a fish can reverse the effect of the sidedness of its eye asymmetry simply by turning around has caused biologists to study internal anatomy, especially the optic nerves, for the answer. In all flatfish the optic nerves cross, so that the right optic nerve is joined to the brain’s left side and vice versa. This crossing introduces an asymmetry, as one optic nerve must cross above or below the other. G. H. Parker reasoned that if, for example, a flatfish’s left eye migrated when the right optic nerve was on top, there would be a twisting of nerves, which might be mechanically disadvantageous. For starry flounders, then, the left-eyed variety would be selected against, since in a starry flounder the left optic nerve is uppermost.

　　The problem with the above explanation is that the Japanese starry flounder population is almost exclusively left-eyed, and natural selection never promotes a purely less advantageous variation. As other explanations proved equally untenable, biologists concluded that there is no important adaptive difference between left-eyedness and right-eyedness, and that the two characteristics are genetically associated with some other adaptively significant characteristic. This situation is one commonly encountered by evolutionary biologists, who must often decide whether a characteristic is adaptive or selectively neutral. As for the left-eyed and right-eyed flatfish, their difference, however striking, appears to be an evolutionary red herring.

　　1. According to the text, starry flounder differ form most other species of flatfish in that starry flounder

　　[A] are not basically bilaterally symmetric.

　　[B] do not become asymmetric until adulthood.

　　[C] do not all share the same asymmetry.

　　[D] have both eyes on the same side of the head.

　　2. Which of the following best describes the organization of the text as a whole?

　　[A] A phenomenon is described and an interpretation presented and rejected.

　　[B] A generalization is made and supporting evidence is supplied and weighed.

　　[C] A contradiction is noted and a resolution is suggested and then modified.

　　[D] A series of observations is presented and explained in terms of the dominant theory.

　　3. The text supplies information for answering which of the following questions?

　　[A] Why are Japanese starry flounder mostly left-eyed?

　　[B] Why should the eye-sidedness in starry flounder be considered selectively neutral?

　　[C] Why have biologists recently become interested in whether a characteristic is adaptive or selectively neutral?

　　[D] How do the eyes in flatfish migrate?

　　4. Which of the following is most clearly similar to a cline as it is described in the second paragraph of the text?

　　[A] A vegetable market in which the various items are grouped according to place of origin.

　　[B] A wheat field in which different varieties of wheat are planted to yield a crop that will bring the maximum profit.

　　[C] A flower stall in which the various species of flowers are arranged according to their price.

　　[D] A housing development in which the length of the front struts supporting the porch of each house increases as houses are built up the hill.

　　5. Which of the following phrases from the text best expresses the author’s conclusion about the meaning of the difference between left-eyed and right-eyed flatfish?

　　[A] “Most striking” (line 3, paragraph 1)

　　[B] “variation is adaptive” (line 2, paragraph 2)

　　[C] “mechanically disadvantageous” (line 7, paragraph 3)

　　[D] “evolutionary red herring” (line 9, paragraph 4)

　　[答案与考点解析]

　　1. 【答案】C

　　【考点解析】这是一道细节推导题。根据本题题干中的“most other species”可以把本题的答案信息来源确定在第一段的第三句，从第三句的主从句中可以归纳推导出本题的正确答案C。本句中的“while”一词的含义是“虽然、尽管”，用来表达事物之间的对照对比。考生在解题时一定要首先学会审题定位的基本功。

　　2. 【答案】A

　　【考点解析】这是一道文章具体写作手法题。这是一道比较难的题型，需要考生对文章的叙述结构有深刻的理解。本文第一段介绍了一种现象，第二段和第三段是生物学家对这种现象的解释，第四段是本文作者对生物学家的解释提出否定。可见本题的正确选项是A。考生在解题时一定要注意文章的发展脉络。

　　3. 【答案】B

　　【考点解析】本题是一道审题定位题型。本题的题干没有具体给出寻找答案信息的任何线索。在这种情况下考生一定要牢记原文作者的主要意图。具体来说，本文作者的主要意图是要否定一些生物学家对某种生物现象的解释。相关的内容出现在原文第四段的首句。如果考生能够认识到原文第四段首句在全文中的重要性，就找到了破解本题的方法，再把第三段的尾句和第四段的第二、三句通读并且仔细理解就会找出本题的正确答案B。当然这是一道比较难的题目，需要考生良好的答题素质。希望考生在迷失答题思路的时候，一定要多想一想从原文的中心主旨句和每段的段首句设法破解难题。

　　4. 【答案】D

　　【考点解析】这是一道词汇理解题。根据原文中的“cline”一词可迅速把本题的答案信息确定在第二段第一句。第二段第一句中的“gradual”、“geographic”、“adaptive”和“environmental differences”等词提供了本题的正确答案D。考生在阅读原文回答问题时，一定要学会识读原文中的相关重要词语。

　　5. 【答案】D

　　【考点解析】这是一道审题定位题。根据题干中的“the author’s conclusion”可将本题的答案信息迅速确定在尾段，确切地说就是尾段的最后一句。考生一定要清楚原文作者的结论一般会出现在全文的尾段。本题的正确答案应该是涉及到尾段的选项D。

　　[参考译文]

　　鲆鱼，例如比目鱼，freekaobo.com是少数左右两侧不太对称的脊椎动物之一(左右两侧对称指的是身体中线左右两边的结构为镜象反射)。在成年的比目鱼所具有的众多明显的不对称现象中，最令人震惊的是它的眼睛的位置：在成熟以前，一只眼睛会移动，结果是成年比目鱼的两只眼睛都移动到头部的同一侧。在大多数非对称的物种中，成年个体的非对称性看起来都是相同的，但星形比目鱼种的成员则既可以是眼在左侧的(两只眼都在头部的左侧)，也可以是眼在右侧的。在美国和日本之间的水域中，星形比目鱼的群体组成不断变化，在美国西海岸附近，50%是眼在左侧的，在美国和日本之间的中间位置，70%是眼在左侧的，而到了靠近日本海岸的地方，则几乎百分之百都是眼在左侧的了。

　　生物学家将这种在特定地理区域范围内的逐渐变化称为“渐变群”，并针对渐变群解释说，它强烈地表明这种变化是适应性的，是对环境差异所作出的反应。对于星形比目鱼来说，这种说法暗示形状上的差异(同左右两侧对称的鱼相比)是适应性的，日本的星形比目鱼之所以眼在左侧，是选择的结果，但这又引起了一个令人困惑的问题：两只眼睛都在一侧比两只眼睛分在两侧具有什么选择性的优势呢?

　　鱼只要简单地转个身，就可以使它的眼睛在一侧的不对称性所带来的影响逆转，这是非常容易的，所以生物学家只好去研究内部解剖学，特别是研究视觉神经，以寻求答案。在所有的比目鱼中，视觉神经都是交叉的，右边的视觉神经连接到大脑的左半部，左边的视觉神经连接到大脑的右半部。这种交叉会引起不对称性，因为一条视觉神经必须会在另一条视觉神经的上面，要不就在下面。G·H·帕克对此解释说，举例来说，如果一条比目鱼的右视觉神经在上面而左眼发生了移动，那么两条视觉神经就会扭曲纠缠在一起，这在结构上可能是不利的。于是对于星形比目鱼来说，就不应该选择眼在左侧，因为在星形比目鱼中，左侧的视觉神经是在上面的。

　　上面这种解释的问题是日本的星形比目鱼种群几乎全是眼在左侧的，而大自然的选择则从不推动完全没有有利条件的种属发展。由于其它的解释被证明同样也是站不住脚的，所以生物学家得出了结论，认为眼是在左侧还是在右侧并没有什么重要的适应性差异，这两种特征在遗传上与别的一些有意义的适应性特征相关。研究进化的生物学家经常会遇到这样的情况，他们经常必须判断一个特征究竟是适应性的，还是在选择上中性的。对于眼在左侧的比目鱼和眼在右侧的比目鱼来说，它们的差异虽然很惊人，但这似乎是进化过程中的一个分散人们注意力的不相干的现象。

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