语法5

第二节宾语从句

在主句中作宾语的就是宾语从句，并不是所有的动词都能接宾语从句，应满足的先决条件是及物动词。宾语从句可分为三类:
一、that 引导的宾语从句
that引导的宾语从句最为普遍，从句应是完整的主谓结构，且that有时可以省略，
如：She told me (that) she had bought a gift for me.
I hope that it will be cooler tomorrow.
常接此类宾语从句的动词有：say, think, hope, tell, see, deny, demand, suggest, propose, declare, feel, intend, insist, believe, agree, admit, expect, explain, imagine, know, report, doubt等
I doubt that he has the ability to do this.
二、what, where, when, which, who, why,
how等词引导的宾语从句
宾语从句还可由上述类似特殊疑问词的引导词引出，此时引导词作从句的主语、宾语、或状语，不可以省略
如：I can't understand why you feel so bitter about her manners.
Could you explain what has caused the delay?
I wonder how you managed to escape.
Just tell me which one you prefer.
此类从句的形式颇像问句，但需注意应用陈述句语序，不可倒装
可接此类从句的动词有：ask, say, tell, know, wonder, understand, inform, advise, decide, find, answer, suggest, show, discuss, discover等
三、whether /if 引导的宾语从句
whether / if引导的从句，表示“是否….”，whether /if虽不在从句中担当成分，但因有实际意思，不可省略，之后的从句必须是完整的主谓结构
如：I wonder if /whether you are interested in his paintings.
I can't decide whether I should go or not. (此时不能用if)
注：有些be+形容词的句式结构类似于宾语从句，可归入此类，如：
I am sure that he will come before long.
I'm afraid (that) you are not allowed to enter without a pass.
例题：
(1)
Almost all economists agree ----by trading with one another.
(A) nations that are gained
(B) nations they gain
(C) gaining nations
(D) that nations gain
答案：D
解释：谓语动词agree的宾语不完整, 因agree一词不能直接与名词词组搭配, 但可接that引导的从句, 故D以外的选项均可排除
(2)
　Today it is generally recognized as the primary function of the Federal Reserve
　　A　　　　　　　　　　　 B
　System is to foster the flow of credit and money that will eventually facilitate a
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　C　　　　　　　　　　　　　D
　balance in international payments.
答案：B
应改为：that.
解释：介词as无法连接两个主谓句，应用关系连词连接，构成宾语从句
(3)
A biologist does not merely describe organisms, but tries to learn ----act as they do.
(A) what causes them to
(B) causes them to what
(C) what to cause them
(D) what cause to them
答案：A
解释：空格处需要的是动词learn的宾语，B是谓语形式可先排除；因不符合固定词组cause somebody to do, C和D均可排除；A是what引导的宾语从句，符合题意

第三节状语从句

状语从句是从句中的一大类，在考题中更是频繁出现，它的主要功能是作主句的状语，由完整的主谓句构成。状语从句和主句在语法上关系并不紧密，但在逻辑上是不可分割的

考点一分类及主要引导词
1. 时间状语从句
主要引导词：when, whenever, before, after, until, while, since, once, so long as, as soon as, the moment, every time, as, next time
I will call you after I get to the company.
I don't call her until I get to the company.
Every time I feel lonely, she comes to talk to me.

2. 地点状语从句
主要引导词：where, wherever
Wherever you go, I will be right here waiting for you.
3. 原因状语从句
主要引导词：because, as, since, considering that, now that, not that, seeing that
注意：in that是书面语中原因状语从句的引导词，相当于because, 在填空题中曾经出现
Now that it is raining, we'd better cancal the meeting.
4. 目的状语从句
主要引导词：so that, in order that, for fear that, in case, lest
5. 结果状语从句
主要引导词：so…that, so that, such…that
注意：so…that句式和too…to句式的区别是重要考点之一，so…that接从句；too…to接不定式
The old lady is so generous that a lot of people admire her.
She is too young to resist it.
6. 条件状语从句
主要引导词：if, unless, in case, so long as, on condition (that), provided (that)
7. 让步状语从句
主要引导词：though, although, no matter, even if, even though, however, whatever
注意though, although等都不能够与but连用
例题：
(1)
Anthropology is a science ----anthropologists use a rigorous set of methods and techniques to document observations that can be checked by others.
(A) in that
(B) that in
(C) that
(D) in
答案：A
解释：空白处前后均是完整的主谓句, 意思上后者是对前者的解释说明, 推知需填入从句引导词, in that是一特殊的状语从句引导词, 表示原因, 与此句意思吻合
(2)
Gorillas are quiet animals, ----they are able to make about twenty different sounds.
(A) how
(B) in spite of
(C) because of
(D) even though
答案：D
解释：空白前后都是完整的主谓句，需填的一定是连词，可首先排除BC,A引导的宾语从句不能接在表语后，只有D正确，构成状语从句
(3)
Pure flint is too hard and even-grained that it chips in smooth curved flakes.
A　　　 B　　　　　　　　　　　 C　　　　　D
答案：B
应改为：so.
解释：so...that是固定句式，表示如此……以至于

考点二状语从句中的省略
部分状语从句可以省略，在填空题中时有出现
如：Although defeated, he did not lose heart. (从句中省略了he was)
If informed timely, I wouldn't have missed the meeting. (从句中省略了I were)
例题：
(1)
----relatively costly, the diesel engine is highly efficient and needs servicing infrequently
(A) Even
(B) It is
(C) Even though
(D) There is
答案：C
解释：逗号后是完整的句子, 缺少的可能是从句或状语的一部分, B、D是主谓结构, 肯定不对; A 是副词, 为甚至之意, 放在原句中讲不通; C 是尽管的意思, 实际上省略了状语从句的主谓语it is, 符合题意. 还需注意的是costly是形容词而不是副词
(2)
Although ---- rigid, bones exhibit a degree of elasticity that enables the skeleton to withstand considerable impact.
(A) apparently
(B) are apparently
(C) apparently their
(D) are they apparently
答案：A
解释：although是让步状语从句引导词，空格处需要从句的主谓语，B缺少主语，D不应倒装，可先排除；their不能修饰形容词rigid，B也可排除；A是从句的省略式，相当于Although they are apparently rigid

第四节同位语从句

句子的同位语多由名词短语充当，但少数词之后可接由that引导的从句作同位语，此时需和定语从句相区别，同位语从句中that不在从句中承担成分，而且不可省略
如：I was disillusioned by the fact that he had deserted us for ever.
The idea that man is inferior to animals is quite unacceptable.
可接同位语从句的名词有：fact, reason, idea, news, hope, doubt, belief, proof等
例题：
(1)
Astronomy developed from the observation ---- through regular cycles of motion.
(A) going to heavenly bodies
(B) the heavenly bodies going
(C) heavenly bodies that go
(D) that the heavenly bodies go
答案：D
解释：空格前是句子的主谓语，之后是介词短语，选项中只有D可将前后两部分连接起来，构成observation的同位语从句
(2)
Alchemists had the idea which by applying che
mical vapors to base metals they
　　　　　　　　　　　　A　B　　　　　　C
　could create gold.
　　D
答案：A
应改为：that.
解释：从句表达的是idea的内容, 且idea在从句中不作成分, 因此确定此处不是定语从句, 而是同位语从句, 应用that引导
词汇：alchemist: 炼金术士

第五节主语从句和表语从句

主语从句和表语从句都是名词性从句，与宾语从句的分类、语法规则基本相同。
主语从句如：
That she has gone insane is sheer rumor.
Whoever says it must be a fool.
Whether you are innocent or not remains a question.
表语从句如：
The problem is that you have lost your way.
That's how we got to know the truth.
My major concern is whether you agree or not.
例题：
(1)
---- xenon could not form chemical compounds was once believed by scientists.
(A) For
(B) It was
(C) That
(D) While
答案：C
解释：空格后有两个非并列的谓语，空格处一定是需要从句引导词构成主从复合句，B可先排除，因compounds是form的宾语，不是was的主语，可见是从句作句子的主语，只有C引导的是主语从句；A、D都构成状语从句，但主句缺主语，故不对
(2)
---- has been a topic of continual geological research.
(A) Did the continents originate
(B) How did the continents originate
(C) Have the continents originated
(D) How the continents originated
答案：D
解释：空格后是句子的谓语, 空格处需要主语, A、C是倒装句无法和原句连接, how引导的主语从句不需要倒装, 所以D是正确表达
(3)
In her time, Isadora Duncan was----today a liberated woman.
(A) calling what we would
(B) who would be calling
(C) what we would call
(D) she would call it
答案：C
解释：空格前是句子的主谓语，空格处需要was的表语，A从句缺少谓语，B从句少先行词；D语义不通；C构成恰当的表语从句，符合题意

第十章时态

英语和汉语的显著区别之一就是英语有时态之分，不同的时态通过谓语动词、助动词的不同形式, 以及句中的时间状语来体现。TOEFL最常考的两种时态是现在完成时和一般过去时.

第一节现在完成时

现在完成时的形式可概括为：have /has (用于第三人称单数) done /been
如：She's just gone out.
They have already finished the task.
I haven't met him recently
Has he told you about the accident?
现在完成时用于表示说话之前已发生的动作但对现在仍有影响，或是由过去某点延续至说话时的动作，完成时有一些标志性的时间状语，如：already, yet, just, ever, since, for，so far, up to now, in the past years等
TOEFL考试中改错题的考察重点是since, 如句中有since引导的时间状语，相应的谓语动词必然是现在完成时，反之要注意句中的时间状语是否符合完成时的要求，若不符，大多改为since
例题：
(1)
Almanacs in simple form have been known from the invention of writing.
　　　　　　　A　　　　　　　　　　　　B　　　C　　　　　D
答案：B
应改为：since.
解释：此句是现在完成时，应用标志词since表示“自从”的意思
(2)
Gore Vidal has steadily pursue a literary career remarkable for its productivity,
　　　　　　　　　　　　A　　　　　　B　　　C
　versatility, and unpredictability.
　　　　　　　　　　D
答案：A
应改为：pursued.
解释：此句为现在完成时, has后面应是动词的过去分词, 原形pursue肯定不行
注意: 当现在完成时的时间状语是for + 一段时间(已经有…时间了), 和since + 一个时间点(自从…以来)的时候, 句中的谓语不能是非延续性动词(暂短性动词), 如不能说:
I have borrowed the book for ten days. (错误: borrow这个动作是发生在图书出纳台上的一次性动作, 不能延续, 因此不能和for引导的时间状语连用)
应改为: I have kept the book for ten days.
这样的暂短性动词还有: buy/sell, break, die, graduate, drop等.
第二节一般过去时

一般过去时的基本特征是谓语动词使用过去式（was /were /did），主要用于表示过去发生的事情，如：
She used to play tennis every week.
When did you go to bed last night?
Was he on the spot?
一般过去时的标志词为表示过去的时间状语，如：
ago, last year, yesterday, just now, at first, in the end, in 1887等
例题：
(1)
How many people remember listening to Orson Welles' 1938 radio broadcast,
　　　　　　　　　　A　　　　B　　　　　　　　　　　　　　C
　“The War of the Worlds,” Which convince thousands that space aliens had invaded
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　D
the Earth?
答案：D
应改为：convinced.
解释：主句与从句的时态必须保持一致, 时间状语1938表明从句应用过去时
(2)
　The metal aluminum has been first isolated early in the nineteenth century.
　　　A　　　　　　　B　　 C　　　　　D
答案：B
应改为：was.
解释：时间状语early in the nineteenth century 意味着此句是一般过去时

第三节其他重要时态

一、一般现在时
一般现在时用于表示经常往复的动作或自然现象、客观事实等，其难点在于主语是第三人称单数时，谓语动词（be除外）结尾需加-s, 其变化规则和名词变复数一样。而且句子的否定式、疑问式需借助do, does. 此时态的标志词有：often, always, never, usually, every day等
如: He often plays tennis after school.
The moon moves around the earth every day.
二、现在进行时
现在进行时主要用于描述说话时正在进行的动作，基本形式为：be doing，其标志词为：now, right now, at the moment等.
如: At the moment the representatives are discussing the current international affairs.
The water is boiling.
三、现在完成进行时
现在完成进行时是进行时和完成时的组合，即：have /has been doing，主要强调从过去一直持续到现在仍在进行的动作
如: The orchestra have been rehearsing since this morning.
The child has been crying since his mother left.
四、过去进行时
过去进行时表示在过去的某一时间正在发生的动作，基本形式：was /were doing, 标志形时间状语有: 10 o'clock yesterday evening, last night等, 另外当从句是表示过去时间的时间状语从句时, 主句中动词常用过去进行时, 表示“当…的时候, …正在做…”.
如: What were you doing 8 o'clock yesterday morning?
I was working on the last question when the teacher asked us to turn in our papers.
五、过去完成时
现在完成时表示在说话(现在)之前发生的动作, 而过去完成时强调在过去某个时间点之前发生的事件，基本形式：had been/ done, 其标志性的时间状语有: by (before) 12 o'clock last night等, 或者当主句的动作发生在从句之前, 而从句的谓语又是过去时时.
如: He had finished his work by (before) 9 o'clock yesterday evening.
I had tried this brand of ice cream before you introduced it to me.
六、一般将来时
一般将来时用于表示将来即将发生的动作，基本形式：shall /will do, 或be going to do, 其标志性时间状语有: tomorrow, the day after tomorrow, the next week, the next year等.
如: The play will be on show the next week.
How are we going to spend the next ten hours?
七、过去将来时
过去将来时用于表示相对于过去某一时间点将发生的动作，基本形式：should /would do, 多用在表示过去时间的上下文中.
如: She asked what she should do to please her parents.
The farmer concluded that it was going to rain soon.
例题：
(1)
A citadel, a fortress designed for the defense of a city, usually standed on top of a hill.
　　　　　　　　　A　　　　　　　B　　　C　　　　　D
答案：B
应改为：stands.
解释：此句为介绍性文字, 除usually 无其他副词表示时间, 因此应用一般现在时, 而不是过去时。

第十一章一致原则

一致原则贯穿英语语法，在前面各个章节中已有涉及，本章作为对前面的补充，集中讲TOEFL题中常考的问题

第一节主谓一致

主谓一致指的是主语和谓语在数上要保持一致. 在英语除了时态的变化外，名词、动词的数也有差别，这就要求主语（以名词为代表）和谓语（包括助动词）在数上要一致
如：
1. 在名词+of+名词这种结构中, 前一个名词是整个短语的中心词, 当该短语作主语时，一般以of之前名词的数为依据确定谓语的数.
one of 之后需接复数名词，但one of+名词作主语时中心词是one，故谓语应用单数
One of my students wins the game.
例题：
　One of the wildest and most inaccessible parts of the United States are the
　　　　　　A　　　　　　　B　　　　　　　　　　　　　C
everglades where wildlife is abundant and largely protected.
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　D
答案：C
应改为：is
解释：句子的主语是one而不是parts, 谓语动词应与主语一致, 也用单数
词汇：inaccessible: 难以到达的
2. 由and连接的多个名词作主语，谓语动词应用复数
Career and love are important to me.
Jim, John and Mary are playing football.
但是如果用and连接起来表示单一的概念时，谓语动词要用单数
The famous singer and actress, Whitney Huston is coming to the ceremony.
(在这里, singer和actress指得是同一人, 都是Whitney Huston)
例题：
(1)
The novel or short story are the literary forms most typically called fiction.
　　　　A　　　　　　　　　　　　B　　　　　C　　D
答案：A
应改为：and
解释：谓语are是复数，而or连接的主语是单数，为保持一致，or应改为and
(2)
Magnificent mountains and coastal scenery is British Columbia's chief tourist
　　　　　　　A　　　　　B　　　　C　　　　　　　　　D
attractions.
答案：C
应改为：are
解释：主语mountains and scenery是复数，谓语应保持一致，改为复数are
3. 不可数名词，尤其是抽象名词(relation, authority, necessity, power, democracy, young等)作主语时要视为单数，谓语自然也要用单数
The relation between us is very simple.
例题
Nearly 75 percent of the land of the Canadian province of British Columbia are
　A　　　　　　B　　　　　C　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　D
covered by forests.
答案：D
应改为：is
解释：主语land是不可数名词，应视为单数，谓语应保持一致，改为is
4. 单个从句作主语时，谓语用单数
That she has gone insane is sheer rumor.
When they will come hasn't been made public.
5. 如果主语是单数，那么即使后面有with/ together with/ along with/accompanied by, no less than, like, but, except, including, besides等引导的短语，谓语动词仍然要是用单数
例如：The boy, together with his parents, goes to the cinema today.
No one except the two boys knows how to solve this problem.
6. 由Not A but B, Not only A but also B, either A or B, neither A nor B引导的主语，谓语通常和最邻近的主语相一致
Either you or Mary hurts her.
Neither my wife nor I myself am able to persuade my daughter to change her mind.

Not you but he is tired of typing.
Not only the students but also the teacher is going to be blamed.
7.在there be句型、介词短语、副词为句首引起的倒装句中，真正的主语通常在谓语的后面，谓语应该和后面的主语在数方面相一致。
但是在there be 句型中，如果有两个或者两个以上的主语，必须和最接近他的那个主语相一致。
There are a lot of books on the table.
There is only one pencil, two books and one cup on the table.
Many a time has he given us good advice.
例题：
(1)
　The first libraries in the North American colonies was established in Massachusetts
　　　　　　A　　　　　　　　　　　　　B　　　　　C
　in the year 1638
　　　D
答案：A
应改为：library.
解释：谓语部分是单数形式, 主语需与其一致
(2)
The ritual combat of animals are triggered by precise signals.
　　　　A　　　　　　　　B　　　　　C　　　　　D
答案：B
应改为：is.
解释：此句为简单句, 主语combat是单数形式, 谓语动词应与之一致, 用be动词的第三人称单数形式
(3)
　Mahogany is often considered the finest cabinet wood because they has most of the
　　　　　　　　　　A　　　　　　　　　　　B　　　　　C
　qualities desired for furniture making.
　　　　　　D
答案：C
应改为：it.
解释：从句中谓语has是单数形式，主语应一致，用单数
第二节主从句时态一致

主从句语义相互关联，时态也需呼应，所谓一致并不是说主从句的时态要一模一样，而是不能脱节，一般的原则是不能跨越大的时间范畴，如：主句是一般过去时，从句可能是过去完成时或过去将来时，而不大可能是现在时或将来时，当然具体情况还应具体分析，但针对解答TOEFL题而言，掌握上述原则已是绰绰有余
1．通常当主句中的时态是现在时或将来时态时，从句中的动词时态并不受影响，往往还是根据从句的意思而定。
I know that he will come tomorrow.
I know that he has finished reading this book.
I know that he went to school yesterday.
2. 当主句中的时态是过去时态,那么从句中的时态要作一定的变化
I knew that he would come tomorrow. (现在将来时变为了过去完成时)
I knew that he had finished reading this book. (现在完成时过去完成时)
I was told that he was free today. (现在时态变为过去时态)
例题：
(1)
　Industrial buyers are responsible for supplying the goods and services that an
　　　　　　A　　　　　B　　　　　C
　organization required for its operations.
　　　　　　　　D
答案：D
应改为：requires.
解释：主句是一般现在时, 从句应与其一致, 且从句中的主语an organization为单数, 故将过去式required改为一般现在时的单数形式
(2)
　Anthropologists agree that our primitive ancestors who inhabited the tropics
　　　　　　　　　A　　　　　　　B
　probably have natural protection against the sun.
　　　C　　　　　　　　　　　　D
答案：C
应改为：probably had.
解释：此句that引导的宾语从句中又包含定语从句, 定语从句用的是一般过去时, 主从句的时态应相呼应, primitive一词亦暗示应用过去式

第三节代词与其先行词一致

在讲代词一章时已提到代词的作用是替代已出现过的词，即先行词，那么代词和先行词之间也应保持性、数的一致才能保证替代的忠实性，不引起误解
在改错题中，确定代词的先行词是解题的关键，主要是依靠句意来判断，还需留意下列情况：
1. 反身代词需和所在主谓结构的主语一致，若不一致应改为宾格形式
如：Her mother helped her solve the problem.
此句中helped之后若用herself则指的是her mother, 语义不同
2. 在主从句中，或有分词状语的句子中，代词所代替的对象有可能在其后出现，要准确识别
如：After she entered the room, Mary flung herself to the bed.
此句中she指代的是主句中的Mary
例题：
(1)
　Researchers at the University of Colorado are investigating a series of indicators
　　　A　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　B
　that could help themselves to predict earthquakes.
　　　　C　　　　D
答案：D
应改为：them.
解释：反身代词应与句子主语所指一致, themselves应指的是定语从句中的主语indicators, 显然不符合句意, 应改为宾格代词, 指代Researchers.
(2)
The Earth's magnetic poles are not stationary, but slowly shift its position.
　　　　　　　A　　　　　　B　　
答案：D
应改为：their position
解释：poles是复数，不能用its代替，应改为复数代词their
第十二章倒装

倒装句就是将正常的陈述语序加以变化，主要作用是强调被提前的部分
倒装句可分为全部倒装和部分倒装两种：
一、全部倒装
谓语动词提前至主语之前为全部倒装，如：
Out came his guest.
On the hill stood a little cottage that contained heaps of hay.
There lived an elderly lady whose husband died long ago.
二、部分倒装
助动词或情态动词提至主语之前，谓语动词位置不变，即为部分倒装，如：
Neither could he see through your plan.
So little did I know about him that I was easily taken in by his words.
Doesn't her invitation appeal to you?

第一节否定词提前倒装

否定词用于句首时，句子应进行部分倒装
否定词常用的有：
Not only…(but also), 　　　　　　　Not until(直到…..才),
No sooner….(than)(一…..就) Never/ Rarely/Seldom
Hardly/Scarcely… (when) Few/Little
Neither/Nor (也不)　　　　　　　 Nwhere
At no time　　　　　　　 Under no circumstances(决不)
On no account (决不)　　　　　　　In no way
其中not only, no sooner, hardly, scarcely 分别和but (also), than, when搭配使用，需注意：后一组词之后的部分不进行倒装，只有否定词之后的部分倒装
如：Hardly had I arrived home when it began to rain.
Not only was he able to enter the final round of the contest, but he came out first as well.
No sooner had I got any chance to speak than the clerk slammed the door in my face.
Seldom does he travel about.
Under no circumstances should you betray your own country.
此类倒装句一般出现在填空题中，需填入的是倒装部分，只要在句首见到上述的词，就应条件反射的想到用倒装句
例题：
(1)
---- was the first fully successful transatlantic cable finally laid.
(A) Not until 1866
(B) Until 1866, just
(C) Until 1866
(D) In 1866, not until
答案：A
解释：由被动式was laid被名词短语分割开可知, 此句是个部分倒装句, 选项中只有A否定词提前可引导倒装句, 1866应是until的宾语, 故D不对; 此句正常语序应为: The first fully successful transatlantic cable was not finally laid until 1866.
(2)
Not until 1931 ---- the official anthem of the United States.
(A) “The Star-spangled Banner” did become
(B) when “The Star-spangled Banner” became
(C) did “The Star-spangled Banner” become
(D) became “The Star-spangled Banner”
答案：C
解释：否定词not放在句首引起部分倒装，只有C符合倒装语序

第二节介词、分词词组提前倒装

当句子没有宾语，且主语偏长时，往往将句中作状语的介词短语或作表语的形容词短语或作表语的分词短语提至句首，引起主谓的全部倒装
如：In the middle of the river floated the cluster of plants that she had cast.
Characteristic of an anarchist was her strong opposition to the government, which she had blamed for all the social injustices.
Lying on the grassland is a pretty girl in her early twenties.
例题：
(1)
Typical of the grassland dwellers of the continent ----, or pronghorn.
(A) it is the American antelope
(B) the American antelope is
(C) is the American antelope
(D) the American antelope
答案：C
解释：此句为形容词短语be typical of作表语前置引起的完全倒装句, 空白处缺少的实为倒装的主语和谓语动词, A B未倒装, 可首先排除; D无动词, 也可排除. 此句正常语序应为: The American antelope, or pronghorn, is typical of the grassland dwellers of the continent.
(2)
The glaciers that reached the Pacific Coast were valley glaciers, and between those tongues of ice ----that allowed the original forests to survive.
(A) that many sanctuaries were
(B) were many sanctuaries
(C) were there many sanctuaries
(D) there the many sanctuaries
答案：B
解释：and是并列句的连接词，逗号前是分句一，and后是分句二. 因分句二中between引导的介词短语提前，空格处需要分句二倒装的主谓语，D无谓语，可先排除；A使原句只有从句无主句; C中there是多余的，只能选B

第三节副词提前倒装

副词提至句首引起倒装，可分以下几种情况：
1. only + 副词(when, before, if, after等)
或only+介词状语(由in, under, by, on, after等引导)提前，必须部分倒装
如：Only then did he realize how stupid he had been.
Only after entering the store did Arthur realize that there was danger.
Only in the library can she concentrate on her study.
2. often, such, so等副词提前，部分倒装
如: So diligently did he work that he got hight scores on the final exam.
=He worked so diligently that he got hight scores on the final exam.
Such was his wish that the world would stay away from war forever.
Often did we go on a holiday in hot summer.
注意，so的另一种倒装是表示“也…”
California relies heavily on income from crops, and so does Florida.
加利福尼亚过多的依赖于来自农作物的收入，佛罗里达也是这样
　　　
同理，体会一下neither, nor的倒装
He can't dance, neither/nor can I.= I can't, either.
他不会跳舞，我也不会。
　　　
3. in, out, down, up, away, off, here, there, over等副词提前，全部倒装
如：Off got the staggering gentlemen.
Here are the photos I took at the seaside.
例题：
(1)
　As inevitably as human culture has changed with the passing of time, so does the
　　　　　　　　　　A　　　　　　B　　　　　C　　　　　　　　D
　environment.
答案：D
应改为：has
解释：逗号后是副词so引起的倒装句，表示同前者相同，倒装的助动词应与前一句一致，也用has
(2)
Only outside the Earth's atmosphere ---- to attain extremely high velocities.
(A) to be safe for a space vessel
(B) is it safe for a space vessel
(C) for a space vessel to be safe
(D) a space vessel to be safe
答案：B
解释：副词only引导状语放在句首时，句子需要部分倒装，只有B符合题意

第四节疑问倒装

疑问句需部分倒装语序，由于经常用到不会成为考试的难点。
如：What part did he play in Hamlet?
Do you prefer tea or coffee?
例题：
(1)
Of the millions who saw Haley's comet in 1986, how many people----long enough to see it return in the twenty-first century.
(A) will they live
(B) they will be living
(C) will live
(D) living
答案：C
解释：此句是how many 引导的疑问句, 缺少倒装的谓语部分, 但因主语people已出现在句首疑问词之后, 不需要再进行主谓倒装. A B 中的they是people的重复, 没有必要; D 不能单独作谓语
第十三章被动语态

被动语态是相对主动语态而言，表示被动的句式，其基本结构为：be + 动词过去分词

第一节与主动态的显著区别

被动语态与主动语态在形式上的特征是选择使用哪一种语态的必备常识，也是解题的法宝。
1. 被动语态中谓语动词必须是及物动词
2. 被动语态中谓语动词之后绝大多数不能再接宾语
只有少数可接双宾语的动词，如：consider, give, call, name等，
例如：She was considered a genius in painting.
　　　He was called a hero.
　　　The ship was named Queen Elizabeth.
改错题中，若在被动句里, 动词(上面提到的接双宾语的动词除外)的被动式之后出现宾语，则此处必有错误，可改为主动句；同样，在主动句中, 若及物动词后没有宾语，也必定有误，可改为被动句
例题:
(1)
　Clementine Hunter's primitive paintings have been exhibited at various galleries,
　　　　　　　　　　　A　　　　　　　　　　　　B　　　C
　included one at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington D.C.
　　D
答案：D
应改为：including
解释：被动式included之后不能接宾语，including是一个介词, 意思是“包括”
3. by可视为被动语态的标志词，by之后的名词短语是句中动作的施动者；在题干中若见到by+名词的结构要优先考虑用被动式
如: The wall is painted by Tom.
The book was written by Mark Twain.
注意1：by之后如果接的是动名词，则表示方式、手段，不能视为被动式的标志，且此时谓语应用主动式，
如：He passed the exam by cheating.
注意2：对于know来讲，一般用be known to 而不用be know by
　　　
例题：
(1)
People have always fascinated by the parrot's colorful feathers and its ability to mimic
　　　　　　　　A　　　　　　　　　　　　　B　　　　　　C
human speech.
D
答案：A
应改为：always been fascinated
解释：by引导被动语态的施动者，谓语应用被动式
(2)
The seating of musicians in an orchestra is arranged ----to produce the desired blend of sounds from the various musical sections.
(A) the conductor of
(B) from the conductor
(C) the conductor and
(D) by the conductor
答案：D
解释：若不要空白处的话, 此句亦很完整, 可清楚的看出空后的不定式短语表目的, 那末可能填入的是arrange的施动者, 自然应该用by来引导；A of不能接不定式; C 不能在被动式后面接宾语
(3)
According to some theories derived from psychoanalysis, life is supposedly easier
　　　A　　　　　　　　　　B　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　C
　and more pleasant when inhibitions overcoming.
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　D
答案：D
应改为：are overcome..
解释：根据意思由when引导的状语从句中inhibitions和overcome应为被动关系, overcoming是表主动的现在分词形式, 而限制不可能自行克服, 故改作过去分词

第二节被动语态的不同时态

被动语态由助动词be加过去分词构成，它也会有不同的时态，其时态主要通过助动词be来表现。其中对过去进行时的表示方法需留意
如：The potatoes are being peeled in the machine.
She was being questioned by the police.
其它时态举例：
The table has just been cleaned. （现在完成时）
His passport had been changed without his notice. （过去完成时）
The press conference will be held in three weeks. （一般将来时）
例题：
(1)
Experiments in the photography of moving objects ----in both the United States and Europe well before 1900.
(A) have been conducting
(B) were conducting
(C) had been conducted
(D) being conducted
答案：C
解释：此句缺少谓语, conduct是及物动词, 后若无宾语应是被动式, A B 首先被排除, D分词不能单独作谓语
(2)
　Conservative philosophers argue that the very structure of society is threatening by
　　　　　　　　　　　　　A　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　B
　civil disobedience, while humanists stress the primacy of the individual conscience.
　　　　　　　　　　C　　　　　　D
答案：B
应改为：is threatened.
解释：threaten是及物动词, 应直接接宾语, 可见by引导的介宾短语是被动句中表施动者的, 因此谓语应是被动式
(3)
　The unit of measurement known as a “foot” has originally based on the average
　　　　　　　　A　　　　　　　　　　 B
　 size of the human foot.
　　C　　　　　　　D
答案：B
应改为：was
解释：由副词originally(最初, 起先)判断，此句应用过去时，依句意应用被动语态，主语unit是单数，故改为was
第十四章常考关于It的句式

代词it在英文中有着特殊的地位，它不仅可代表时间、天气、距离等特定概念，如:
It's raining heavily.
It's two o'clock in the afternoon.
而且, it还可作形式主语, 形式宾语，构成强调句，可谓威力无穷

第一节形式主语句

作为形式主语的it并无实际语义，只是为满足语法上的需要，避免句子头重脚轻，它代替的是句子的逻辑主语，概括起来会有如下情况：
1. 句子的逻辑主语为不定式
如：It is very kind of you to give me a hand in time.
It is my pleasure to address the meeting.
It was pretty hard for him to bring up the child on his own.
2. 句子的逻辑主语为从句
如：It so happened that the tickets were sold out.
It is extremely obvious that she has been lying about her identity.
It suddenly occurred to me that the message must have been hidden between the layers of the briefcase.
3. 句子的逻辑主语为动名词短语
这类句子远不如前面两种出现率高，主要在（no good, waste, useless, no use, dangerous）等词语的后面用
如：It is no use reasoning with him.
　　　 It is no good reading in dim light.
例题：
(1)
Sometimes----to place physics and chemistry into separate categories.
(A) difficult
(B) is difficult
(C) it is difficult
(D) that it is difficult
答案：C
解释：给出部分是不定式短语, 缺主谓结构, A B都不完整, D 是从句形式, 只有C 包含形式主语it及谓语is difficult
(2)
In 1938, when Benny Goodman's orchestra presented a concert at the prestigious Carnegie Hall, ---- was clear that jazz had at last been fully accepted.
(A) there
(B) which
(C) and
(D) it
答案：D
解释：空格前是句子的时间状语, 之后是谓语, 空格处需要主语, B、D可先排除; 此句显然不是there be句式, 所以只有D可作形式主语, 逻辑主语是that之后的部分
第二节强调句

强调句中it作形式主语可以替代任何被强调的部分
基本模式：It + be + 强调对象 + who/ whom/that + 句子其余部分
如：It was only you who cared for me. (强调主语)
It is his sister whom /that I have fallen in love with. (强调宾语)
It was under the tree that she found her missing purse. (强调地点状语)
It was last week that I attended an art exhibit for the first time. (强调时间状语)
It was not until he broke my favorite vase that I flew into rages. (强调状语从句)
注意：强调的对象是人时，可用who, whom或that, 其余情况一律用that; 当强调对象在从句中做主语时用who/that, 当强调对象在从句中做宾语时用whom/that.
例题：
(1)
In bacteria and in other organisms, ---- is the nucleic acid DNA that provides the genetic information.
(A) both
(B) which
(C) and
(D) it
答案：D
解释：空格前是状语，空格后是典型的强调句式，空格处需要形式主语it, 只能选D
(2)
---- who was the first Black woman to run for the office of President of the United States in 1972.
(A) Shirley S. Chisholm
(B) It was Shirley S. Chisholm
(C) Shirley S. Chisholm was
(D) When Shirley S. Chisholm
答案：B
解释：空格后是定语从句，空格处需要句子的主谓语，A, D使原句只有从句无主句；C缺少从句的先行词；B构成强调句，符合语法

第三节形式宾语

在“动词+宾语+宾语补足语”结构中，当宾语是不定式、从句或动名词时，需用it作形式宾语接在动词之后，将逻辑宾语移至补足语之后
注意: 常接it做形式宾语的动词有: find, think, make, feel, deem, consider等.
如：His cooperation made it possible for us to fulfill the demands of our clients.
She decided to make it clear that she would never yield to authority.
I believe it no use crying over spilt milk.
例题：
(1)
Variables such as individual and corporate behavior ----nearly impossible for economists to forecast economic trends with precision.
(A) make
(B) make it
(C) it makes
(D) makes it
答案：B
解释：此句谓语残缺，由主语是复数可排除C、D, 因短语make possible宾语为不定式时要用形式宾语it, A也被排除
(2)
Using many symbols makes ---- to put a large amount of information on a single map.
(A) possible
(B) it possible
(C) it is possible
(D) that possible
答案：B
解释：在词组make possible中，当make的宾语是不定式短语时，需由it作形式宾语，此题恰是这种情况，故选B
第十五章虚拟语气

此章内容在TOEFL考点中处于相对次要地位，但在英文中是比较活跃的用法，必须对其有所了解, 这样对读题非常有帮助
虚拟语气是英文中一特殊的语言现象，主要用于表达与事实相反的陈述，常表达强烈愿望、遗憾、感慨、后悔、责备、规劝等语义，可大致分为三类
一、对现在事实的虚拟
基本形式：If + were /did等过去式…, …would /could /should /might + do
例如：If I were a bird, I would fly to the moon.
(事实上，I'm not a bird, so I will not fly to the moon.)
If she knew who you are, she would go out of joy.
(事实上，She doesn't know, so she still feels joyous.)
二、对过去事实的虚拟
基本形式：If + had done…, …would /could / should /might + have done
例如：If she had been warned earlier, she wouldn't have broken the rules.
(事实上：She was not warned earlier and she broke the rules.)
If it hadn't rained, the match would have seemed more fascinating.
(事实上：It rained and the match was less fascinating.)
此种虚拟可进行倒装，如：
Had the letter been sent out, it would have ruined our friendship.
= If the letter had been sent out, it would have ruined our friendship.
三、对将来事实的虚拟
基本形式：If + should do…, …would /could /should /might + do; 意思类似汉语中的“万一”
例如：If he should forget the date, I might teach him a good lesson.
(事实上：他不大可能忘记那个日期)
If it should snow this afternoon, we could make a snowman.
(事实上不大可能会下雪)
此种虚拟可倒装，如：
Should my car fail, I would have to return home on foot.
= If my car should fail, I would have to return home on foot.
注意1：部分动词的宾语从句中需用虚拟语气，形式为should do, 其中should常被省略。
此类动词有：insist, demand, suggest, propose, order, require, decide, ask, request等.
例句： We all insist that we (should) not rest until we finish the work.
　　　 The professor suggests that the students (should) collect enough materials before they work on this project.
上面的动词如果以名词形式出现时，后面的that从句仍然要采用虚拟语气
　　　He gives me the suggestion that I (should) eat breakfast every moning.
注意2：在一些惯用语之后经常需要用虚拟，来表示与事实相反或者难以实现的事情
这类习语有： as if , as though, but for, otherwise, without, wish, if only等
例句： But for your help, I would not have arrived here in time.
　　　 (如果没有你的帮助，我就不能准时到达)
Without your help, I would not arrive here in time.
注意3：在下列形容词引导的that从句中必须要用虚拟语气(should) do，但是由于should经常被省略，所以实际上用的就是动词原形。
这类形容词有: It is important/ necessary/ proper/ imperative/ essential/ advisable等 + that
例句：It is necessary that he (should) realize his situation.
例题：
(1)
Abraham Lincoln insisted that ---- not just on
mere opinion but on moral purpose.
(A) to base democracy
(B) for democracy to be based
(C) democracy be based
(D) whenever democracy is based
答案：C
解释：动词insist之后的宾语从句需要用虚拟语态，从句谓语应是should do或do，选项中只有C符合要求，谓语是动词原形
终于传完了!虽然这里的语法有点简单,但是这是基础,祝大家考试成功!

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