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楼主  发表于: 2008-09-01   

该错题常考要点

该错题常考要点 =Z/'|;Vd_x  
一、代词 FVG|5'V^  
代词中主要讲解六个问题 aVuan&]*=  
(一) 掌握代词的几种格 5:|5NX[.b  
  主格、宾格、所有格 DS>s_3V  
  名词前面用代词来修饰,只能用所有格(my books) SrK;b .  
_KmpC>J+  
(二) 反身代词 \, n'D  
当主语和宾语表示同一事物时,宾语使用反身代词。 _'n;rZ+  
  He killed himself. (他自杀了) O,qR$#l   
  He killed him. (他杀了他) !dhZs?/UI  
%9mB4Fc6b)  
例:Researchers at the University of Colorado are investigating  IvIBf2D;Q  
    A                 B    l[ G ,sq"  
  a series of indicators that could help 1:Y DN.*  
             C      9[T#uh!DC  
  themselves to predict earthquakes. \<lV),  
    D $6!`  
分析:D错,应改为them。如果用反身代词themselves,指代对象是从句主语that(即名词indicators),这显然是错误的。从句意来看,help的宾语应该是主句主语researchers,故应用代词宾格而不是反身代词。注意C并没有错,情态动词could 比can语气弱,表示较小的可能性。 V<4)'UI?k9  
Indicator为征兆,这些征兆帮助他们来预言地震。主语是征兆,后面指研究者,不是同一个事物 7C2/^x P  
}sJ% InL  
(三) 代词的单复数,代词的性别 DA@ { d-A  
在考试中如果代词打横线,代词错误的概率是非常高的,因此代词打横线,应该先看代词有没有错。 #s  yP=  
-m'a%aog  
例:The continental divide refers to an imaginary line in the North American Rockies 6w1:3~a  
  that divides the waters flowing into the Atlantic Ocean from it flowing into the [c86b  
     A   B      C          D 3'/wRKl  
  Pacific. %< j=&  
v?LJ_>hw*T  
分析:D错,应改为those。D指代复数名词waters, it是单数,显然是错误的,根据习惯故改为those。注意waters一词并没有错,它指江湖河海中的大片水域,可用复数形式。 !uO|T'u0a  
;'o>6I7Ph  
Water作为水是不可数名词,waters表示水域,通常使用复数形式,作主语谓语动词用复数。 @XIwp2A{+  
Work作为工作是不可数名词,work作为作品,可数不可数都可以,例如: :cC`wX$  
  Many of his works= much of his work, work都表示作品 ! h4So4p  
um8ZhXq  
例:In 1920 the presidential candidate Warren Harding coined ;QE Gr|(  
                       A   D1g1"^~g  
  the word“normalcy”to express social and \'p7,F{:>5  
             B k2+Z7#2n  
   economic conditions they promised the nation. ?1412Tq5  
   C       D rW6w1  
分析:D错,应改为he。动作promised是由Warren Harding发出来的,故用第三人称单数he来指代。 15s?QSKj  
V&}Z# 9Dx  
例:Many critics believe that Amy Lwell' s most important 3<`h/`ku  
        A     l{pF^?K  
  work is not poetry, but his biography, John dl;A'/(t  
   B        C      (f.A5~e  
  Keats, published the year of her death.  VI+Y4T@  
      D eb8_guZ  
分析:C错,应改为her。his指男性,显然是错误的,应改为her与后面的her同指Amy Lowell. )eG&"3kFe!  
}`g*pp*  
:m~lgb<  
(四) Who和which的区别 T(}da**X  
which指代事物或者动物,who指代人 4C[gW  
who/whom son往往要改为whose son, whose可以指代事物 pKJ[e@E ^  
EXi+pm  
例:The human body contains more than six hundred muscles who gI%n(eY  
              A            B c ~C W-%wN  
  account for approximately forty percent of the body weight. .5z|g@ 6  
   C                  D h}d7M55#|  
分析:B错,应改为which或that。先行词不是指人,而是指物,关系代词不能用who,故改为which或that。 }v!6BU6<Q  
人体前面加定冠词the, account for 占有多大的比例,解释说明 >@|<1Fx|  
0jS/U|0  
(五) that和which的区别 sd6Wmmo  
介词后面使用which, 而不用that, in that除外 i0!F  
O*PHo_&G  
例:When television was first introduced, the extent to that it RAxz+1JT  
              A        B `sXx,sV?B  
  would affect society could not have been foreseen. 2n=;"33%a  
      C              D =V , _  
分析:B错,应改为which。The extent to which, 介词加which(引导定语从句),影响社会的程度没有被预见 IY:O?M  
!RD,:\5V  
(六) 定语从句的特殊省略 h.^DRR^S  
Reason后面有定语从句,中间往往省略why, buFtLPe  
Time后面有定语从句,中间往往省略when pSP_cYa#(#  
   I do remember the time I heard the sweetest voice in the wild world. ?uN(" I  
way后面有定语从句,中间省略了in which a8 1%M  
i=D,T[|>a  
例:Research on pain has been neglected, although the mainly LA+MX 0*  
              A         B   cn0F z"d  
  reason people take medicine is to relieve pain. Y P c<  
         C      D Zy%Z]dF  
分析:B错,应改为main。mainly为副词,不能个饰后面的名词,故改为形容词main。句子中people take medicine修饰reason,定语从句引导词被省略 57>ne)51  
h"ylpv+  
例:Commercial expansion from city to suburb has  {+:XVT_+  
  affected the way people in the United States----. A]9JbNV  
   (A) living and working O m  
   (B) they live and work { 1%ZyY  
   (C) live and work pxx(BE  
   (D) to live and to work clw91yrQn  
分析:选择C, the way people....影响了人们生活和工作的方式。 p'qH [<s  
Z L</  
二、介词 W<VHv"?V  
介词是考试中出现的比较多的一个部分,而其中考的最多的就是介词的固定搭配问题。由于篇幅问题,我们在这里仅仅举出几个例题,在说明书手册中我们完整的列出了所有的介词搭配,这些列出的搭配在以前的语法题中出现过,只不过有的时候是正确的选项,有的时候重复考。 @E2nF|N  
~PnpYd<2  
(一) 介词搭配 dO,05?q|  
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例:The teeth in the upper jaw function together those 6sl<Z=E#  
    A         B   C      HW72 6K*  
  in the lower jaw to cut, tear, and grind food. l|A8AuO*?  
                D (dF;Gcw+  
分析:和…一起,应该为together with,C错 I;-5]/,  
z|*6fFE   
例:The Allegheny Mountain range is rich of coal. %E"/]!}3  
A       B     C  D PV6 *-[  
分析:B错改为be rich in K=TW}ZO  
N>%KV8>{L  
例:The rotation of the Earth on its axis is responsible to the [; ?{BB  
    A         B      C D{c>i`\G  
  alternation of periods of light and darkness. &W+G{W{3  
             D !a(qqZ|s  
分析:C错,应改为responsible for。形容词responsible后接名词作宾语时要加介词for。 ;n{j,HB  
f^sb0 nU  
YCBML!L  
(二) 最重要的两个介词 6XL9 qb~X  
1、介词of 多余或者遗漏 B9)qv>m  
例:Mosquitoes usually lay eggs, singly or in batches, on top stagnant water. OXX(OCG>  
          A      B  C     D a~>0JmM+N  
分析:D错,应改为top of stagnant。on top of …是因定表达法,意为“在…上面”。 soQzIx  
q\ y#  
例:Christopher Plummer is a Canadian actor who has k;AiG8jb  
                 A  B     Qn)[1v   
  starred in stage, television, and film productions on "jJdUFN  
      C b;`#Sea  
  both sides the Atlantic Ocean. &R FM d=  
      D K<   
分析:D错,应改为sides of the。 sides为名词,the Atlantic Ocean也是名词,中间明显少了一个介词。 UFAMbI  
27 YLg c  
2、介词by dms:i)L2  
一种情况表示被动,be+过去分词+by h:Mn$VR,  
另一种表示通过……的方式, by doing lyH X#]  
例:The ceremony of marriage in the United States ,iv%^C",)  
    A         B       (=tF2YBV  
   can be performed from a justice of the peace. Z=Y_;dS9  
   C     D A"<)(M+kG  
分析:D错,应改为performed by。谓语动词是被动式,performed的动作执行者应该由介词by来引导。 ny_ kr`$42  
nh&J3b}B!  
例:Along the east coast ,American Indian women's councils O$u mu_  
   A                      %=mwOoMk0L  
   could veto a declaration of war at refusing to g*r{!:,t  
     B    C       D B/9<b{6  
   supply moccasins and field rations. C(1A  8  
分析:D错,应改为by refusing。通过拒绝提供鞋子和粮食,表示通过某种方式做某事要用介词by,故将at refusing 改为by refusing。 -2jBs-z  
;$tv8%_L[  
例:Algebra is the branch of mathematics concerned with Jyz$&jqyr'  
        A                QOh w  
  operations on sets of numbers or other elements Fb{`a[&  
        B          C   hKzBq*cV  
  that are often represented at symbols. w{zJE]7  
              D K'{W9~9Lq  
分析:D错,应改为by。动作的发出者应该用介词by来引导。 ~q]|pD"\K|  
三、谓语动词 Uygw*+  
(一) 谓语动词的主谓一致 2 ) /k`Na  
①、主谓分割原则 leb^,1/D6  
例1:To the citizens of the United States, the bald eagle, 8NAWA3^B  
     A     X\3 ,NR,  
   America's national bird, symbolize strength and freedom. il>x!)?o  
        B      C      D i^s`6:rNu  
分析:C错,应改为symbolizes。主语谓语用逗号分割开,主语the bald eagle为单数,谓语动词也应该用单数形式。 9?l?G GmQ  
X4P}aC  
②、与后者一致原则 f?>-yMR|  
not…but, 强调but后面的名词, %+7T 9>+  
not only…but also ZXsY-5$#d-  
mOz&6T<|  
~*PK080N}  
③、与前者一致原则 &8X .!r`f  
名词+with/together with/as well as/including+复数名词,谓语用is, hk5E=t~&  
中心词在前面,谓语动词应该与前面的名词保持一致 6L:tr LuQ  
例:The athlete, together with his coach and =mi:<q  
     A      B  C     x '=3&vc4  
  several relatives, are traveling to the Olympic Games. /mMAwx  
         D +C'TW^  
分析:D错,与谓语动词与the athlete 保持一致,改为is bQ^DX `o6P  
f- k|w%R@  
④、就近原则 Mf ;|z0UX  
or, either…or, neither…nor, } :RT,<  
单数名词+or+复数名词+are pT3X/ ra  
如果把句子变为一般疑问句,也就是把be动词提到前面,那么变为is ##EB; Y  
所以注意一点: 如果是陈述句,靠后面近,用复数 nL":0!DTRD  
        如果是疑问句,靠前面近,用单数 jIx8k8  
cD'HQ3+  
例:The structure or behavior of many protozoans are (<bm4MPf  
        A      B        m?D <{BQ;  
  amazingly complex for single-celled animals. *]}CSZ[>  
    C              D 9lZAa8Rxi  
分析:A错,应改为and。从谓语动词是复数形式判断,主语应该为复数,or连接两个名词时动词和后面的名词保持一致,behavior是用单数形式,因此只有改为并列连词and才能使主谓在数上保持一致。 fr}1_0DDz  
VxkCK02k  
⑤定语从句主语就近原则 M# \  <  
There are five apples that are red. &dhcKO<4  
apples是复数,因此从句谓语动词是复数。 99l>CYXd  
F`Dg*O  
例:A rocket burns propellant rapidly and most rockets > 63)z I  
      A            Q0zW ]a  
  carry a supply that last just a few seconds. jd%Len&p  
   B   C    D  0dgP  
分析:D错,应改为lasts。从句的逻辑主语a supply为单数,其谓语动词应为单数形式。 ! dU9sB2  
O1GDugZ  
⑥the +形容词主谓一致 R)0N0gH  
The rich are not always happier than the poor. +h0PR?  
The rich 表示一类人,应该用复数 uh]"(h(>  
+hE',i.  
⑦、倒装句的主谓一致 a}:A,t<6  
改错题倒装句的主谓一致一般考两种情况: 2 ;JQX!  
a. there be 句型 T vrk^!  
there be+名词+名词,那么最近的名词决定其形式 &4,WG  
b. between/ among 放在句首+be+名词,名词其实是主语,所以be和名词保持一致 :.*HQt9N  
>[ eW">:>K  
例:There are no known society in which left-handed people predominate. >T<6fpXuk2  
   A     B      C    D    6cM<>&e  
分析:there be 句型由最近的名词决定其形式,society当然用单数,A错,there are 改为there is I*EJHBsQ5  
RFw(]o,9cR  
\ht ?G n  
例:Between the foothills of the Andes and the Pacific Vy__b=ti?  
             A     B    et=7}K]l  
  Ocean are a dry coastal strip averaging about 30 $@_{p*q  
     C         (a[.vw ^g  
  miles in width. PgMbMH  
     D  2 P=[  
分析:倒装句,are改为is 2d* _Qq1  
4'',6KJ@  
例:Among the favorite attractions at the National Air and $.pTB(tO  
   A    B       C         @Mm/C?#*O  
  Space Museum in Washington D.C. are the film *i^`Dw^~y  
                    D w5 `#q&?  
  presented on the five-story-tall screen. (89Ji'dc  
分析:D错,应改为films , 主语实际上是名词,应该与谓语动词保持一致。 'BY-OA#xJ  
l<(cd,  
⑧、百分比结构的主谓一致 B{C_hy-fw  
fifty percent of + 名词 Zb(E:~h\  
one percent of + 名词 q/NY72tj0  
谓语动词的形式和百分比多少没有关系,主要取决于后面的名词,比如: ^"9* 'vTtc  
  one percent of my students + are `0{ S3v  
  fifty percent of my time is spent on working. "xe=N  
+`B'r '  
这里要强调两个结构 d H? ScXM=  
half of =fifty percent 9'nH2,_  
most of + 可数名词 + are ](#&.q%5!  
most of + 不可数名词+ is P`S@n/}  
<xo-Fv  
例:Nearly half of the ancient meteor craters has been 06 i;T~Y  
   A       B         C   im]g(#GnKh  
  found in central and eastern Canada. d;7 uFh|o  
           D WA6!+G y  
分析:C错,应改为have been。介词of的宾语为复数名词短语,作主语的中心词half当然表复数,相应的谓语动词应为复数形式。 KL [ek  
t 9^A(Vh"-  
例:Approximately fifty percent of the package utilized =WG=C1Z  
                 A   B  I7n3xN&4"  
  in the United States are for foods and beverages. #Yuvbb[  
              C     D kM/Te{<  
分析:A错,应改为packages。从谓语动词用复数形式判断出主语是复数名词。注意food用复数表示不同种类的食品,beverage用复数表示不同种类的饮料,故(C)、(D)均没有错。 @F~LW6K  
jZpa0grA  
(二) 谓语动词的时态 +9XQ[57  
①、主要考察时间状语 T6#CK  
47r&8C+&\  
例 The metal aluminum has been first isolated early in the nineteenth century. 445o DkG  
   A        B  C     D ;sPoUn s'  
$HJTj29/  
分析:Metal, aluminum同位语,in the nineteenth century为明显表示过去时间的状语, 因此应该用过去时态,把has been改为was @+LfQY  
_[K"gu  
3;[DJ5  
②、For和since的区别 Q`%R[#  
区别一:For 后面使用时间段,since 后面使用时间点 )$ Mmn  
区别二:Since 只能用在现在完成时态,For 最主要用在现在完成时和一般过去时 BvD5SBa}"  
  I has been a teacher for three years. CZ<~3bEF  
  I has been a teacher since 1996. V 9wI\0  
  I was a teacher for three years. 这种表达可以,for three years表示一段时间,was 表示过去做了三年,现在不是老师了 - r7]S  
h#r^teui)  
例: Since 1921 the budget of the United States became kq=V4-a[  
   A      B              G oM ip8'u  
  the primary responsibility of the president. @|}BXQNd  
     C    D }x0- V8  
分析:A错,应改 In. since一般要求主句用完成时态,而句中谓语动词为过去式,其时间状语应与之呼应,故改Since为In。 N2'qpxOLI  
nl aM  
例:Adella Prentiss Hrghes served as manager of # ]?bLm<!  
             A  B  C   /iC;%r1L  
  the Cleveland Orchestra since fifteen years. H5CR'Rp  
            D OLGBt  
分析:D错,应改为for。since引导时间状语时,主句谓语动词为一般完成时;主句谓语动词为一般过去时要用介词for;而且一段时间用for, 而不是since。 2T@GA 1G  
OO dSKf8  
w%AcG~`j!B  
52. In general, prawns lived in shallow coastal waters or in streams.  C?ib _K*  
   A       B        C     D xkNyvqcw  
自然现象和客观事实用一般现在时态,live Zn=T#o  
Wz4&7KY Y  
(三) 谓语的语态 =gfI!w  
语态主要表示是主动语态还是被动语态。 n79QJl/  
有四组动词是改错题中常考的: @vL20O.  
①、prove -9 !.m  
My advice proved to be wrong. 我的建议被证明是错的 /+*#pDx/zW  
尽管是被证明,但习惯上用主动; a,F&`Wg  
]<(]u#g_d  
例:A majority of the reports received from people claiming 2sNK  
                      A   N NhL*C[_7  
  to have seen the legendary Loch Ness Monster have proven to be Djk C  
    B                  C F' U 50usV  
  mistakes, misconceptions, or they were being tricked. NK|?y  
                  D DRqZ,[!+  
分析:D错,应改为tricks。并列连词 or在此连接名词,如果把D理解为并列句,不仅时态不对,语义也有问题,故将整个句子改为名词。have proven to be是正确的。 I;5R2" 3  
)jWO P,|  
.=m,hu~  
②、Locate,Situate +3s%E{  
这两个词可以用作主动,表示把…放置在…地方;确定…的位置 qq)0yyL r  
  Bats locate obstacles.蝙蝠确定障碍物的位置 5@*'2rO&!  
这两个词也可以用作被动 D7Y)?Z5A;  
  My school was located near the river. e%8|<g+n6  
区分locate的主动和被动比较难,但是有一个技巧存在:locate如果用作主动,后面必须跟宾语 1/p*tZP8i  
例:The center of gravity of the human body ---- behind the hip joint. eh1Q7 ~  
   (A)locates E_KCNn-f  
   (B)locating ycFio ,  
   (C)to locate + OV')oE  
   (D)is located zF5uN:-s  
分析:空格处显然缺谓语动词,故首先排除不能作谓语的B和C。动词locate后面没有宾语,所以用作被动,表示“位于”,所以D为正确选项。 y _xnai  
ARcv;H 5  
③、表示需要概念的动词 .jy]8S8[|%  
need, want, require等 *yl>T^DjTC  
0$7.g!h?  
My watch needed repairing {3N'D2N  
My watch needed to be repaired. cRX~z  
L[5=h  
④、表示人的情感的动词 O;7)Hjwt  
move, annoy, surprise, please等 e #/E~r&  
1-.~7yC  
He is so moving.  他令人感到感动。 29XL$v],  
He is greatly moved. 他感到非常感动。 wP"dZagpj  
"UwH\T4I  
主动和被动技巧总结: E^U0f/5 m  
如果句子中有一个“过去分词+by”, 如果断定它是谓语的话,前面必然有be动词 g/13~UM\  
(knp#   
例:The Tennessee Valley Authority has chartered by the `K ,1K  
                 A      ) }9rwZ  
  United States Congress in 1933 to construct dams, ?W  E  
                 B =)|-?\[w  
  power structures, and flood-control works along wgd/(8d  
                    C MQin"\  
  the Tennessee River and its tributary streams. eW|^tH  
                D Z4IgBn(Z_}  
分析:A错,应改为has been chartered。由信号词by可知前面的谓语动词为被动语态形式。 %,ngRYxT#  
[ Bl c^C{f  
四、非谓语动词 svXR<7) #  
RoAlf+&Qb  
(一) 分词 )& u5IA(  
现在分词和过去分词的区别 ~)(\6^&=|  
①、用于句首作状语,现在分词表示主动,过去分词表示被动 ``E/m<r:$  
Ks}Xgc\  
例:Won its war for independence in 1783, the United States then KF4PJi;*  
   A >ooZj9:'  
  struggled to establish its own economic and financial system. d|4}obCt  
     B      C            D 4V~?.  
分析:分词作状语,主要看是主动还是被动,美国赢得应该是主动,所以A错,改won为winning ;qBu4'C)T  
MX+ Z ?  
②、用于名词后面作后置定语,现在分词表示主动,过去分词表示被动 ;t+ub8  
例:In the nineteenth century the Mohave Indians lived in E\C9|1)  
      A               B   [k-+AA>:  
  the Northern Hemisphere grew their crops on river bottom lands. >|;aIa@9  
               C         D |<O9Sb_  
分析:B错,生活在什么地方的人,人生活是主动,因此改为living ;V<fB/S.=+  
-ig6w.%lk  
g(4xC7xK6  
一些动词后面必须用doing H@l}WihW  
对于加doing的词来说,考试中一般出现一个,下面这些词都是要加doing的,请考生牢记。 B,{K*-7)MX  
 mind, finish, enjoy, celebrate, M}!2H*  
 advocate, suggest y{N-+10z  
 delay, quit 6&/T@LQYrh  
 forgive(原谅),tolerate, -{ZWo:,r~q  
 avoid, escape(逃避) QV\eMuNy  
 spend+名词+doing; v,ju!I0.  
 have trouble/difficult/a problem/ +doing ,{c?ymw?  
Phke`3tth  
例:Long before the dawn of recorded history, humans celebrated to harvest their #t+d iR  
   A     B    C              D L`24 ?Y{  
  crops. ? YG)I;(  
分析:D错,应改为harvesting。及物动词celebrate直接带名词、名词短语或动名词短语作宾语,故将to harvest改为harvesting。 C 9t4#"  
h2D>;k  
例:Some experts have advocated to bring that country into the talks, k5T,990  
               A        B `*shF9.\C  
  to revive the intermittent dialogue that began after the 1967 Middle East War. $ , u+4h  
        C          D #{\%rWnCm  
分析:A错,advocate 后面直接跟doing, 改为advocate bringing VX1-JxY  
L+i(TM=  
(二) 不定式 j*vYBGD  
A. 动词不定式的省略 -(=eM3o-9m  
①、help后面可以省略to yYfs y?3  
  help do z5 YWt*nm  
  help sb. to do <.? jc%  
>m$ 1+30X  
例:A good exercise program helps teach people to avoid ZEx}$<)_  
              A      B   0i k7v<:  
  the habits that might shorten the lives. |/)${*a4n  
         C     D tw9f%p  
分析:D错,应改为their. 定冠词在句中不如代词所有格明确,如果lives后面有定语就可以用the。注意(A)并没有错,help后面可以接不带to的不定式。 T]c%!&^ _  
b"{'T]"*j  
②、使役动词后面要省略to, 这样的动词只有三个 k-^mIJo}  
  make, #%h-[/  
  let, 1waTTT?"Ho  
  have sb. do sth W@I|Q -  
  注意get不是使役动词,get sb. to do sth. z.;ez}6%V  
例:A conductor used signals and gestures to let the musicians #iHs* /85  
        A               B Fkd+pS\9g~  
  to know when to play various parts of a composition.  ^0 \  
   C     D @/ohg0  
分析:let是使役动词,后面不需要to, C改为know }*S `qW;B  
#6HA\dE  
③、感官动词 NdD`Hn -  
   hear, feel, watch, see, notice, observe oV|4V:G q  
   see sb do sth. 强调过程 \=ux atw  
   see sb doing sth 正在做某事 CU@Rob}s  
67G?K;)e  
b((M)Gz  
B. 动词不定式的固定用法 @v)p<r^M">  
(1)表示第一人 7>))D'l57  
the first woman to do sth. O @j} K4  
xg;+<iW  
(2)表示迫使的动词 lJ}_G>GJ  
一般考三个, allow/ enable/ call, +sb. + to do xRzFlay8  
Tz8PSk1[  
例:Besides providing clues to the nature of atoms, mineral analysis #mCL) [  
     A                 B    1AM!8VR2  
  allows to speculate geologists about the ancient Earth. UU;(rS/  
       C           D mpU$ +  
分析:allow...to do是固定短语,allow的宾语应在不定式之前,即把C改为: allow geologists to speculate。 _u5#v0Y  
>_-s8t=|  
^6MU 0Q2  
(3)表示倾向…的形容词 G\Cp7:j}  
  be more likely to do 更有可能作某事 t\~P:"  
  be inclined to do倾向于做某事 ~=6xyc/c  
  be lieable to do 易于…的 aW)-?(6>  
  be apt to do \IV1j)I"u  
jjw`Dto&  
(4)表示目的的名词, ] 6(N@RC  
一共有7个这样的词,这一条也是最重要的。 Wz49i9e+d  
固定的句式: -:Da&V  
the purpose , the purpose of sth is to do sth. -Ta9 pxZk  
the objective 目标 G'Q-An%z  
aim  *'.|9W  
goal xW)2<m6C&  
reason理由 _~IR6dKE  
function功能 ~:kZgUP_f  
intension意图 %GjM(;Tk  
z&#SPH*  
例:The function of Louis Sullivan's architecture was providing W>Y@^U&x`  
                       A  c }Ft^Il  
  large uninterrupted floor areas and to allow ample light into the interior. LSa,1{  
           B          C     D jSh5!6O  
分析:the function to provide, A错 xu/cq9  
q>_/u"  
例:The chief goal of biochemistry is for understanding the structure ck ]Do !h  
                  A       d A@]!  
  and behavior of the carbon-containing compounds PWaw]*dFmy  
     B  8'r2D+Vwm  
  that make up various components of a living cell. AF;)#T <  
    C    D ] bM)t<  
分析:the chief goal is to understand, A错 6]V4muz#c  
\f]k CB  
(5) 其他同根名词 C]O(T2l{l  
 ability to do 受到be able to 的影响 3c#BKHNC  
 attempt to do 企图 `YFtL  
 decision to do 决定, 受decide的影响 ~bM4[*Q7  
 ambition, ;,C)!c&  
 be ambitious to do  PlU*X8  
 effort %q/62f 7?  
Eza`Z` ^el  
例:For ancient people, myths were often attempts explanation '-r).Xk  
  A                    B   N|8P )  
  catastrophic events such as volcanic eruptions. K,Ef9c/+K  
          C       D I?h)OvWd  
分析:B错,应改为to explain。 attempts后应跟动词不定式短语表目的,故将名词explanation改为to explain。 6_J$UBT  
8UXjm_B^'  
例:In the early 1960's the Civil Rights movement made great 3AHlSX  
  A                   B   ZOft.P O  
  efforts for registering members of minorities to vote. ]mo-rhDsM  
       C            D ]9YJ,d@J  
分析:efforts to register, C错 ^`*9QjY  
 |XT)QK1  
R}G4rO-J  
C. 动词不定式的其他用法 T_i:}ul  
(1) be to do 表示已安排好或者注定要发生的动作,属于将来时态的范畴 AJf4_+H e  
She and Anne are to meet at two o'clock. D N'3QQn  
931bA&SL=/  
(2)不定式的完成式为“to have done”,表示不定式的动作在谓语动作之前发生,这个完成式通常表示一般过去时 H2&@shOOQJ  
I am glad to see you. I(]}XZq  
I am glad to have seen your mother yesterday. f1`gdQ)H  
yesterday是一般过去时,修饰have seen. :V1W/c  
#D <C )Q  
(3) 形容词后面使用动词不定式,主动表示被动 *?Lv3}E  
It is difficult to decide. $Wjww-mx  
'= _/1F*q  
;'?l$ ._  
五、句子的结构 8 BY j  
句子的结构主要考查四个出题方向。 O}tZ - 'T  
RS"H8P 4W  
(一) 主语的重复 u}>#Eb  
名词+代词+谓语,这个代词永远是重复的主语,永远是错的 c]$i\i#  
例:Woodrow Wilson he was an idealist who refused to make any k >F'ypm  
          A      B      @PN#p"KaT  
  compromises concerning the establishment of the +1Vjw'P  
          C          D iocI:b <  
  League of Nations. H9KKed47d/  
分析:代词he不是同位语,主语重复;如果是下面这样的主语,那么便是主语同位语 {kp-h2I,  
A prolific writer, Woodrow Wilson J1/?JfF  
8;z6=.4xtg  
@En^wN  
例:Two unique features of the Arctic they are sC27FVwo  
        A        B  TK5K_V*7  
  lack of precipitation and permanently frozen ground. oE<`VY|  
    C         D IN4=YrM^  
分析:选项B中的they和前面的主语two unique features重复 ` BDLW%aL  
#%`|~%`{:  
(二)谓语的重复 1)9sf0LyU  
完整的句子后面又多了一个谓语,往往改为定语从句 2]I4M[|&z  
8j Mk )-  
例:A paragraph is a portion of a text consists of  P6E3-?4j  
    A            B    <!L>Exh&r  
  one or more sentences related to the same idea. k xP-,MD  
         C   D [!!o-9b  
分析:B错,应改为consisting of或which consists of。句中有两个无法连接的谓语动词,而且前一个谓语动词下面没有划线,故改consists为非谓语动词形式或在它前面加which使之成为从句谓语动词。 `o<' x. I  
_=+V/=  
(三)谓语的缺少 =6woWlfb  
例:Most mammals to maintain a relatively constant body W^fuScG)c  
          A     B    ;ToKJ6hN|*  
  temperature, regardless of what the air temperature might be. :r%P.60H X  
         C               D Tg!i%v(-t  
分析:A错,应改为maintain。句中缺谓语动词,故去掉不定式符号to 使maintain变成谓语动词。 Fp@TCP e#  
T^:UBjK6t{  
(四)主句的重复 D-8O+.@  
主句的重复总是考even, instead, during, despite等引导的句子, 但是实际上它们无法把两个句子连接起来,因为它们都是副词或者介词,连接两个句子应该用连接词连接 Uh7v@YMC  
MG[o%I96  
ElS9?Q+  
例:Salmon spend most of their adult lives in salt water, despite ]GN7+ 8l  
      A         B        C   ld3-C55  
  they return to their freshwater birthplaces to spawn and die. ` jzTmt  
     D vLR~'" `F  
分析:C错,应改为though。despite是介词,后面一般接名词作宾语,而在句中它后面却跟着一个完整的句子,所以改为连词though。 @.G[s)x  
f>aEkh6u9  
例:Solar eclipses occur during the Moon's shadow ;FBUwR}  
        A   B       3BB%Z  6F  
  sweeps across the face of the Earth. G:<`moKgL  
      C    D hJwC~HG5  
分析:B错,应改为when或as。介词不能引导条件状语从句,根据题意改为从属连词when或as。 +6UVn\9Q  
/V8}eZ97  
例:Even many early leaders of the United States have provided !6s"]WvF  
   A                     B  t=_J9|  
  names for towns, only George Washington QA2borfy  
      C oo.!.Kv  
  is remembered in the name of a state. {z(xFrY  
          D ZQ)>s>-  
分析:A错,应改为Even though。even为副词,不能引导从句,根据题意,改为引导让步状语从句的Even though。 Y]{ >^`G  
六、比较级和最高级 |A cRIq  
比较级和最高级的出题非常有规则,一共有5个出题方向,并且每次考试必然考两个 ]4h92\\965  
HHq_ P/'  
(一)    比较级或最高级形式上的重复 (4'$y`Z  
例:The most easiest process for mining gold is panning, which rF aF Bd  
      A               <Ard 7UT  
  involves using a circular dish with a small pocket at the bottom. pX&pLaF  
     B       C           D BZud) l24  
分析:A错,应改为easiest。easiest本身已是最高级,不必再用most,这是最高级形式上的重复 IX*idcxR  
xEf'Bmebk  
(二)比较级和最高级之间的混用 sXi=70o  
例:The greenest and plentifulest leaves are the leaves of grasses. 2 Yp7  
     A      B     C  D G 16!eDMt  
分析:B错,应改为most plentiful。 plentiful是多音节形容词,须在前面加most构成最高级。 /%0<p,T  
Bn61AFy`  
例:The more fearsome of all the animals in the Western Hemisphere X@k`3X  
     A       B     C   D mN!lo;m5  
  is the grizzly bear. HPb]Zj  
分析:A错,应该用最高级most,含有介词of, among, in 表示的范围状语使用最高级。 Hir Fl  
 EI_  
TjQvAkT  
(三)比较词than的前面一定要有比较级 <$F\Nk|x  
改错题中,通常会看见than前面有一个原级 (FJ9-K0b{n  
C?i >.t  
例:Film directors can take far great liberties in dealing with wk6NG/<  
   A           B  +)j1.X  
  concepts of time and space than stage directors can. VQ0fS!5'  
   C                 D NPd%M  
分析:B错,应改为greater。根据后面有than一词可以判定前面的形容词用比较级形式,注意far, much 修饰比较级。 qf=1?=l291  
,Z{d.[$  
(四)在as…as以及否定not so…as, not as…as的中间使用形容词原级 C4hx@abA  
as sweeter as, 这是不对的,应改为as sweet as lW(px^&IN  
~v'3"k6  
(五)the 和比较级最高级的关系 vfl5Mx4  
①、比较级前面可以出现the, 修饰后面的名词 GrTulN?  
the taller boy es>W$QKlo  
K]j0_~3s  
②、副词的最高级加不加the均可以 :^Fh!br==  
例:Although flies live longest in cool temperatures, it breed zGc: @z  
          A            B 3/b;7\M  
  prolifically when temperatures are warm, food is WdZ:K,  
  abundant, and humidity is moderate. E@-KGsdhK  
    C          D 5Q 'i2*j  
分析:副词的最高级加不加the均可, 所以A正确,从从句的主语可以看出,B应该改为they &BtK($  
CBDG./  
③、形容词的最高级作定语前面必须使用the, 如果不作定语的话,加不加the均可以 @FC"nM  
例:Of all the Native Americans in the United States, FJ %  
  A  B         C     P%#*-zCCx  
  the Navajos form largest group. z81esXl  
         D f)g7 3=  
分析:D错,应改为form the largest。形容词最高级前面要加定冠词。 H-3Eo#b#  
$8 p7D?Y  
陷阱1, earliest, 有两种可能, =7m}yDs6$  
一种可能是early的最高级,最早的语言,the earliest language S a4W`  
    另一种可能作名词,表示早期,必须和时间的名词连用,earliest time, earliest ages, 表示很早的年代,很早的时代,也就是说,如果以后碰上earliest后面加上times, ages, 前面不用加the &AlJ "N|  
25NTIzI@@  
例:The belief in fairies have existed from earliest times, and the literature of many R-Z~V  
            A      B         C ]$p{I)d&  
  countries includes tales of fairies and their relationship to humans. _{Sm k [  
            D R(-<BtM!-  
分析:A错,应改为has existed。主语是单数名词the belief,而不是复数名词fairies,故谓语动词是单数形式。earliest times表示表示很早的时代是正确的。 Wd0 [%`dq  
%0 #XPc("  
陷阱2,如果最高级前面有所有格的话,不用加the (YY~{W$w(  
例如:my best friends "+zCS|   
n39t}`WIl  
例:Salt Lake City, Utah's capital and largest city, is industrial >XOiu#kC  
            A    B     C h?-#9<A  
  and banking center. Hg9CZM ko  
        D tX!n sm1  
分析:C错,应改为is an industrial center。center为可数名词,它的修饰词前面应有不定冠词。 ~+<olss_  
Utah's largest city, 题目中其实是省略了Utah's。 l<Q>N|1#k%  
[xh*"wT#g  
$5L0.$Tj  
例:Faults in the Earth's crust are most evidently in sedimentary N$x tHtz8"  
                 A         );*YQmdx'  
  formations, where they interrupt previously continuous layers. 8?*RIA.a  
    B   C     D ? <Y+peu  
分析:A错,are的表语必须用evident, 为什么不加the, 因为作表语,而不是定语 8 4i_k  
v|ox!0:#  
七、平行结构 @\w,otT  
改错题考的最多的一个方向便是平行结构 /%A;mlf{  
5'w^@Rs5  
5j0{p$'9  
(一) 对等连接词 SEl#FWR  
一共有三类连接平行结构的词 XhdSFxW}  
单一式: and, or ,but 8F)G7 H ,  
相关式: both…and, not … but, ]APvp.Tw:  
     either …or, neither…nor -[OXSaf6  
     the same…as;as…as, not so…as, not as…as okq[ o90  
     such …as, so …that.. too…to, from…to, from…until, D;Gq)]O  
没有so...as... Dml*T(WM>  
between…and, 4yaxl\2  
     not only…but also(also可以省略),Not only +主谓,also k>E`s<3  
     not only…but also(also可以省略)+as well, s7r9,8$  
l{ex?  
短语式: as well as 2X-l{n;>  
     rather than (而不是) 91of~ffh  
     other than (除…之外) 44\>gI<  
     instead of (代替) `>D9P_Y"jI  
ZyR_6n>L$  
考试的方式往往是搭配中有一个单词是对的,另一个单词却不对 `\<37E\N}  
例:John lived in New York since 1960 to 1975,  ig0u^BC  
       A     B   iA!7E;o  
  but he is now living in Detroit. gQ~5M '#  
       C   D rZ bEvS  
分析:B错,应改为from。“从某年到某年”要用“from…to…”这个表达法,不能用since …to…。 OMihXt[  
J NC  
例:Even as he wrote copiously on so diverse topics o@lWBfB*%e  
       A         B }8'&r(cN4  
  as education ,politics ,and religion ,Lewis Mumford }tST)=M`  
  remained active in city and regional planning. &[?CTZ  
          C    D  |'HLz=5\  
分析:B错, 改为such diverse topics as, 出现as, 往往要注意前面一半 S"snB/  
(二)平行的内容 & h$|j  
第一、引导词性的平行,词性的平行本质上是语法作用的平行 }bB` (B,m  
例:Photoperiodism is the functional or behavioral response of q]4pEip  
             A         B   Jd 3@cLCe-  
  an organism to changes in duration of daily, seasonally, 9x~-*8aw  
         C            D 3$M3Q]z  
  or yearly periods of light and darkness. H D/5!d  
分析:D错,应改为seasonal。在daily, seasonally和yearly三个并列的词中,daily和yearly是形容词,seasonally是副词,故改为形容词seasonal,共同修饰名词periods,三个形容词的平行,词性平行 XOb}<y)r~  
%4>x!{jwV  
83 ]PA<R  
第二、名词单复数的平行 ]]iO- }  
但是如果既有可数名词,又有不可数名词,可以不平行 ;Fl<v@9  
~waNPjPRG  
例:The main advertising media include direct mail, Ef7:y|?  
  A     B          C   c5i%(!>  
  radio, television, magazines, and newspaper. 'Am-vhpm  
                 D   SHdL /1~t  
分析:D错,应改为newspapers。newspaper为可数名词,在没有任何前置修饰语的情况下一般用复数形式,并且和前面的magazine平行,而mail, radio, television则是不可数名词。 (wt+`_6  
%l9$a`&  
例:The Canadian province of Newfoundland has a rocky coast, a moisture climate, 2M6dMvS  
                   A         B )3E,D~1e%  
  and probably the best cod-fishing areas in the world. -$4kBYC l+  
      C          D #V 43=  
分析:海岸气候只有一个,但是钓鱼的地方可以有许多个,所以也是不可数名词和名词复数的平行;因此D没有错,A错改为have LPE)  
delf ]  
第三、时态的平行 f{Qp  
例:The poet Marianne Moore was initially associated K}x/ BhE+  
                A     tE hr  
  with the imagist movement , but later develops cx(2jk}6  
                   B $B _Nc*_e  
  her own thyme patterns and verse forms. O*7i } \{  
          C    D e@ oWwhpE  
分析:B错,应改为developed。句中前半部分谓语为过去时,与之并列的谓语也应用过去时。 @FX{M..  
X8 qIia  
例:Because the papaya grows readily from seed , ----- W);W.:F  
  spread from its home in Central America and *TnzkNN_,  
  now grows throughout the tropics. 8M93cyX  
   (A) to be    (B) it   /t{=8v~  
   (C) the     (D) its @l >Xnqx)  
分析:正确答案为(B)。空格前是原因状语从句,后面紧接着是谓语动词,空格处明显缺主句主语。四个选项中只有B能单独作主语。注意spread是过去式,没有数的变化,因为这一动作明显发生在过去时间。spread 和grows为什么时态可以不平行呢? nPf'ee  
原来它在Central America 的家乡传播,现在在整个地方传播,now只修饰后面的grow @36S}5Oa  
/2w@ K_Px6  
例:Ducks have been domesticated for many centuries ---- SfDQ;1?  
  commercially for their meat and eggs. B)a@fmp"a  
   (A) raised   (B) and are raised _;G=G5r  
   (C) raised as  (D) are raised ~07RFR  
分析:正确答案为B。空格前是一个完整的句子,根据一个空格处如再出现谓语动词一定要有连词这一原则,B为惟一符合条件的选项。故选(B)。 $c9=mjwH  
,>S+-L8  
第四、排列位置的平行 "^"'uO$  
例:---the surface of metal, but also weakens it. !aeNq82  
   (A) Not only does rust corrode kH2oK :lN  
   (B) Not only rust corrodes  hho%~^bn(  
   (C) Rust, which not only corrodes (6-y+ LG  
   (D) Rust not only corrodes 'z](xG<  
分析:正确答案为D。从but also放在动词前可知,not only也须置于动词前,故选D。A、B中的Not only位置放错了,C使句子缺主句,故排除。 *H*\gaSh  
u_Zm1*'?B  
对于not only, but also的用法有以下几种: uN(b.5y  
 1、主语+not only +谓语,but also+谓语,正确;例如上面例题中的第四个选项。 |D(&w+(  
 2、Not only +主谓,but also+主谓,正确 ^Y<M~K972  
 3、Not only +主语+谓语,but also+谓语,错误 ^Fvr f`A'  
;_p fwa4  
八、词序的颠倒 j`Nh7+qs  
词序的颠倒一般只考一道,90%的情况集中于下面三个出题方向 kYtHX~@  
(一) 先说形容词,再说名词 gPp(e j7  
例:The Medal of Honor is the highest award military for courage `{L{wJ:&a  
              A    B        L6kZ2-6  
  that can be given to any individual in the United States. z.j4tc9F/5  
      C       D    >F|qb*Tm7  
分析:B错,军事的荣誉是military award而不是award military,单个形容词修饰名词时一般放在被修饰词的前面。 #~*XDWvIS~  
|Z!@'YB  
V0S6M^\DK  
(二) 副词+形容词+名词 K+-zY[3  
例:Certain types of computers work properly only 5Abz 5-^KH  
          A      B     /khnl9~+  
  in environments with controlled precisely temperatures. >F~ITk5`Oo  
    C         D ]*a@*0=  
分析:D错,应改为precisely controlled,精确的被控制的温度。controlled为过去分词用作形容词,修饰它的副词应放在其前面,它自己则要紧挨着被修饰的名词。 Eq oASu  
_ Q{T';  
9D%qXU  
(三)主语系动词, 系动词 + 表语 L1rA T  
)FV6,  
例:During the 1600's skilled shoemakers scarce were C~{xL>I  
          A   B     C   ` %l&zwj>  
  in what is now the United States. !2#\| NJk  
    D JR!Q,7S2!N  
分析:C错,应改为were scarce。表语应该放在系动词后面。 k+f1sV[4}  
x<Iy<v7-  
所有的系动词分为三大类: 9}.,2JE  
第一种:表示保持某种状态, Lb let  
    is, remain, keep, stay, L!?v BL  
    lie, exit(表示位于) `!<x "xKu  
第二种,从一种状态转变到另一种状态 KUlB2Fqi  
    become, turn, grow, {qY3L8b  
    get (It is getting warmer and warmer) U 7EHBW  
.zQ4/  
第三种,感官动词 )\RzE[Cb  
    seem(好像是) -|6V}wHg~  
    look(看起来好像是) 0&.LBv8  
    feel, sound, appear, smell, taste ! Zno[R  
enough修饰形容词或副词时,一般放在形容词或副词后面。 qK{| Q  
例: The eruptions of Mt. St. Helens were enough severe 0W;q!H[G  
    A               B     >F,$;y 52  
   to cause numerous deaths. !}z%#$  
        C   D  7qW.h>%WE  
分析:B错,应改为sever enough。severe是形容词, enough放在severe后面。 37J\i ]  
u4go*#  
九、词性的混用 [[#xES21F  
词汇量的掌握对词性的使用非常重要,但是如果对出题方向有更好的把握,将会弥补词汇量的不足。 U p_>y>x  
;Gjv9:hUn  
(一)做表语时形容词和副词的混用 (PRaiE  
做表语永远用形容词,绝对不能用副词; Ti0 (VdY  
N;e;4,_ n  
例:Giant pandas, which inhabit restricted areas of high ['/;'NhdlY  
          A        B      $ijx#a&O  
  mountain bamboo forests, are rarely today and HR/k{"8W4Q  
              C , LCH2r  
  when they are in captivity they breed poorly. $I?=.:<+  
          D gn-=##fT:i  
分析:错,应改为are rare。rarely为副词,不能作表语,故改为形容词rare(罕见的,稀少的) ?q+8 /2  
~Da >{zHt  
8Uj68Jl?  
(二)加宾语时名词和动名词的混用 M>`?m L  
后面加宾语当然要用动名词 nEjo,   
例:Tilling means preparation the soil to plant the seeds BsoFQw4$9  
         A       B      m]+X }|  
  and keeping the soil in the best condition to T {5 M1r  
          C        KUl Zk^a  
  help the crop grow until it is ready3 for harvesting.  ` 4s#5g  
            D Qs#9X=6e@  
分析:A错,应改为preparing。preparation为名词,后面不能接宾语,改为动名词preparing后既能接宾语,又与后面的keeping构成并列关系。 `R4W4h'I  
Y{x[N}h  
例:Langston Hughes, a prolific writer of the 1920's, |THkS@Br  
            A       ONg<  
   was concerned with the depicting the experience of \? 5[RR  
      B      C FvtM~[Q  
   urban Black people in the United States.  RU3_Fso  
   D $=;bccIob  
分析:C错,应改为depicting。 depicting在此为动名词,作介词宾语时不加冠词。注意此处还可以改为the depiction of,但略显累赘,因为后面还有of结构。The +动名词,这个动名词其实就变为了名词。 W#oEF/G  
OI;L9\MJc  
<uWJ>sg^ 6  
####(三)表示时间时,状语从句连接词和近义的介词混用 UC?2mdLt^  
表示时间有两种可能, 'xu7AKpU)  
一种是状语从句,由when and while引导,后面加句子 A_X^k|)T  
另一种是由介词引导,如during,后面加名词, uMq\];7I  
考试中往往就利用这个特点,总是给出相反的情况 !'6J;Fb#  
)nbyV a  
例:Balloon observations for military intelligence rsq'6 0  
       A     B     NZi'eZ{^`  
  were made while the American Civil War. Nt,]00 S\w  
   C    D hH|XtQ.n^  
分析:D错,应改为during。while是从属连词或并列连词,后面接句子,后面是名词短语时,应改为介词during。 G%W03c  
<iY 9cV|}3  
例:Some of the most celebrated publicity stunts while the [3bwbfHhi  
   A      B           C    M\$<g  
  history of radio were associated with Gracie Allen. 4=#QN  
          D C9^elcdv  
分析:C错,应改为in。while为连词,后面要求接从句,而句中显然没有从句,故根据题意改为介词in。 N]<~NG:6b  
Ov{B-zCA  
iR4,$Nn>  
(四)对等连接词和近义的副词混用 5Dh&ez`oR'  
连接平行结构的词叫做对等连接词,但是如果出现else, also, instead等副词把这些结构连接起来行不行呢?当然不行。 Q=9VuTE  
n B|C-.F  
例:Mary McDowell shared Jane Addam's interest in social 4tN~UMw?  
                   A     [$Xu  
  work also was a loyal supporter of the League of Nations. I?xhak1)lu  
     B   C    D r%?}5"*  
分析:B错,应改为and。also是副词,不能连接并列的谓语动词,故改为并列连词and。 F\$}8,9  
^c:eXoU  
例:Paper is strong under tension instead crumples # xE>]U  
   A        B   C      %>QSeX  
  easily under the stress of compression. { N8rZ[Oo  
   D #onfac-3  
分析:C错,应改为but;题目意思是在拉力的作用下很强,而在压力的作用下容易起皱;instead, 副词不能连接两个动词并列,but 的对等连接词和and, or的用法是一样的 ^SES')x  
<H(AS'  
b9!J}hto,  
(五)表示人的名词和表示事物的词混用 RI].LB _  
FV<^q|K/(]  
例:An editor is customarily a brief newspaper or magazine )I1V 2k$n  
    A         B Mdq'> <ajL  
  article that gives personal comments on current events. )}Mt'd  
          C            D Vf* B1Zb  
分析:A错,应改为editorial。 editor的意思是“编辑”,根据题意改为名词editorial(社论)。 Y K62# ;  
$2Tty 7  
~ 8qFM  
例:For centuries, music have played acoustical guitars, "B{xC}Tw  
         A fxCPGj  
  which produce sound from the vibration of the strings. P xuz {  
   B      C      D SOY#, Zu  
分析:A错,应改为musicians。music是抽象名词,意为“音乐”,不能表示复数要领显然应改为musicians(音乐家)。 v?iH}7zb%Q  
-)c"cgx.  
(六) 只能用副词+数量词+名词;不能用形容词 eFI9S.6  
nearly two hundred students, 这里nearly修饰的是200; +]2~ @=<@  
two hundred diligent students
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